550 



CRUSADES CRUSTACEA. 



over the strait of Gallipoli, conquered Nirc in 1097, 

 Autioch and Edessa in 1098, and, lastly, Jerusalem 

 in 1099. Godfrey of Boulogne was chosen king of 

 Jerusalem, but died in 1100. The news of the con- 

 quest of Jerusalem renewed the zeal of the West. 

 In 1 102, an army of 260,000 men left Europe, which, 

 how, \ er, pcri-lied partly on their inarch, and partly 

 by the sword of 'the sultan of Iconium. The Genoese, 

 and other commercial nations, tuidertook several ex- 

 peditions by sea. The second great and regularly 

 conducted crusade was occasioned by the loss of 

 Edessa, which the Saracens conquered in 1142. The 

 news of this loss produced great consternation in 

 Europe, and it was apprehended that the other ac- 

 quisitions, including Jerusalem, would fall again into 

 the hands of the infidels. 



In consequence of these fears, pope Eugene III., 

 assisted by St Bernard of Clairvaux, exhorted the 

 German emperor, Conrad III., and the king of 

 France, Louis VII., to defend the cross. Both 

 these monarchs obeyed the call in 1147, and led 

 large bodies of forces to the East ; but their enter- 

 prise was not successful, and they were compelled 

 to withdraw, leaving the kingdom of Jerusalem in a 

 much weaker condition than they had found it. 

 When sultan Saladin, in 11S7, took Jerusalem from 

 the Christians, the zeal of the West became still more 

 ardent than at the commencement of the crusades ; 

 and the monarchs of the three principal European 

 countries Frederic I., emperor of Germany, Philip 

 Augustus, king of France, and Richard I., king of 

 England determined to lead their armies in person 

 against the in6dels (1189). This is regarded as the 

 third crusade. Frederic's enterprise was successful ; 

 but the kings of France and England succeeded in 

 gaining possession of Acre, or. Ptolemais, which, un- 

 til the entire termination of the crusades, remained 

 the bulwark of the Christians in the East. 



The fourth crusade was conducted by the king of 

 Hungary, Andrew II., in 1217, by sea. The empe- 

 ror Frederic II., compelled by the pope, who wished 

 for his destruction, to fulfill a promise made in early 

 youth, undertook the fifth crusade, and succeeded in 

 regaining Jerusalem, although he could not secure 

 the permanent possession of the country. The list of 

 heroes who conducted the crusades is honourably clos- 

 ed with St Louis, king of France (who conducted the 

 sixth crusade, commencing in 1248), although fate 

 frustrated his plan, which was ably conceived, and 

 bravely executed. While Louis was still in Egypt 

 (for he proposed conquering the Holy Land by an in- 

 vasion of Egypt, the seat, at that time, of the rulers 

 of 'Palestine), a revolution broke out in that country, 

 which proved decisive with regard to the possession 

 of the Holy Land. The house of Saladin was de- 

 throned, and the dominion of the Mamelukes and 

 sultans established. These directed their efforts 

 against the possessions of the Christians in Palestine. 

 Tripoli, Tyre, Berytus, fell into their hands succes- 

 sively, and on the fall of Acre, or Ptolemais, the last 

 bulwark and the last remains of the Christian empire 

 on the continent of Asia, were overthrown. By 

 means of these joint enterprises, the European na- 

 tions became more connected with each other, the 

 class 'of citizens increased in influence, partly because 

 the nobility suffered by extravagant contributions to 

 the crusades, and partly because a commercial inter- 

 course took place throughout Europe, and greatly 

 augmented the wealth of the cities ; the human 

 mind expanded, and a number of arts and sciences, 

 till then unknown in Europe, were introduced there. 

 The present civilization of the European world is, in 

 a great degree, the result of these crusades. It be- 

 longs to a history of poetry to describe, how much 

 -.ontemporary poetry was affected by the crusades, 



and the extent to which they luul given currency to 

 a certain class of ideas (hat 1ms prevailed ever since. 

 Some of the best works on the crusades are Frederic 

 Wilkin's Geschichte der Krcuzzucge nach morgeiilaen- 

 dischen tend abendlaeiidisken Berichten, Leipsic (the 

 three first volumes appeared in 1807 19 : volume 

 four, which treats of the period from 11 88 to 1 195, 

 appeared in 1826) ; Histaire det Croisades, by De 

 Miciiaud, a member of the French academy, fourth 

 edition, Paris, 1825; Charles Mills'* History of the 

 Crusades, London, 1820; Heeren's Versuck enter 

 Enticickelung der Folgen der Kreuzzuege/uer Europa, 

 Goettingen, 1808. 



CRUSADE, and CRUSADA. See crusada, old 

 and nmo, in the article Coins, under the division 

 Portugal. 



CRUSCA, ACADEMIA DELLA. See Academies. 



CRUSTACEA ; a term applied to those animals 

 which are covered with a soft shell or crust. These 

 consist of crabs, lobsters, prawns, and shrimps. The 

 testaceous shells, such as oysters, muscles, and their 

 congeners, are also included in the general appel- 

 lation. The Greeks termed the Crustacea, /ta.\.a- 

 xoffTfuxos, as signifying that they were animals whose 

 covering was less compact, than tliat of testace- 

 ous shell-fish of the oyster, cockle, and muscle 

 kinds. 



The Crustacea rank as the sixth class of animals 

 which are destitute of a back bone ; and are com- 

 prehended in the third division, which is termed 

 Articulata, or those animals whose members or limbs 

 consist of segments or rings, articulated into each 

 other, to the inside of which their muscles are at- 

 tached. 



Chemists have found the shells of crustaceous ani- 

 mals to consist of phosphate of lime, in combination 

 with animal matter, while those of the testaceous 

 mollusca are composed of lime along with the gelati- 

 nous substance. But a still more obvious distinction 

 exists between these animals ; the shells of oysters 

 and other testaceous animals generally consist of 

 one or two pieces, enveloping the whole animal, 

 (except in the C impedes, see article Conchology) 

 and adheres permanently during life ; while the 

 coverings of the Crustacea are cast and renewed 

 periodically, and invest the animals as it were in a 

 coat of mail. 



When the animals are first denuded, the whole 

 surface of their bodies is extremely soft, and it is 

 not for some time that the substance which has 

 been exuded from the pores on the surface of their 

 skin, acquires a hard consistence. It is at this 

 time that many of them fall a prey to their numerous 

 enemies ; consequently many of them, at this period, 

 seek concealment in holes, and in soft muddy bot- 

 toms of the sea. 



Naturalists have experienced much difficulty in 

 finding an appropriate place for this class of ani- 

 mals. Linnajus placed them between the fishes 

 and mollusca, uniting them to his class Insecta. 

 In the earlier writings of Cuvier and Latreille, 

 they adopted the views of Linnaeus, while Lamarck 

 followed the ideas of Brisson, who formed them into 

 a separate class, as well as spiders ; giving the for- 

 mer the name Crustacea and the latter Arachnoides. 

 This improvement has been generally acknowledged, 

 and followed by subsequent writers on Natural His- 

 tory. 



Crustaceous animals present remarkable physiologi- 

 cal distinctions. They respire by means of branchiae, 

 or by branchial plates, usually attached to their feet 

 or to their jaws ; they have from five to seven pairs 

 of feet ; their head is frequently not distinct from the 

 trunk, provided with from two to four jointed, seta- 

 ceous antennas ; and two compound movable eyes 



