GYMNASTICS. 



599 



were lost for a season, anil some for ever, in the utter 

 corruption of the latter ages of the Roman empire, 

 and the eruption of wandering barbarians, the 

 gyirtaastic art perished. We may date its revival 

 from the commencement of tournaments, the first of 

 which were held hi the ninth and tenth centuries in 

 France, and may have had their origin in the mili- 

 tary games of the Romans, aided by the martini 

 spirit of the descendants of the German conquerors 

 of France. They received, however, their full per- 

 fection from the spirit of chivalry. The first tourna- 

 ments were fought with blunt weapons, which were 

 called armes grade-uses. At a later period, sharp 

 weapons were introduced, and many fatal encounters 

 happened before the eyes of the ladies. About the 

 year 1066, Godefroy de Preuelly collected the rules 

 and customs of tournaments into a code, which was 

 afterwards generally adopted. At a later period, 

 the cliaracter of these celebrations degenerated so 

 much, that they were finally prohibited by the pope 

 and the emperor, as the Roman ludi had been several 

 times prohibited by the emperors. 



With the superiority which, in the course of 

 time, infantry began to acquire over cavalry, as it 

 always does with the advance of civilization and 

 scientific tactics (see Machiavelli's Treatise on the 

 Art of War], and the invention of gunpowder, the 

 institutions of chivalry declined. The heavy steel 

 coats were done away, and the art of skilful fencing 

 began to be introduced. The first treatises upon this 

 subject appeared in the sixteenth century. The 

 Italians were the first teachers, and three different 

 schools, the Italian, French, and German, were soon 

 formed. We speak here of fencing with the small- 

 sword ; but the Germans also practised the art of 

 fencing with a straight broad-sword, perhaps owing 

 to their neighbourhood to the Slavonian nations, who 

 all prefer the cut to the thrust. The weapon of the 

 Slavonians, however, is the crooked sabre. At the 

 same time, vaulting began to be much practised. 

 The Roman desultores (Livy, xxiii., 29, and Vege- 

 tius), indeed, lead us to suppose that the Romans 

 knew something of this art ; and it was no doubt also 

 practised by the knights of the middle ages ; but 

 the present art of vaulting is modern in its character, 

 and carried to the greatest perfection in France. 

 Fighting with a dagger, and even with a knife, was 

 taught as useful in this turbulent age, and much skill 

 was attained in Holland, in defence by the weapon 

 last mentioned, perhaps owing to the fondness of the 

 Dutch for public houses (estaminets), as this art may 

 be called, by way of excellence, the fencing of the 

 tavern. We even recollect having seen, in an ap- 

 pendix to old works on fencing, the art of defending 

 one's self against attacks, with a pewter beer- pot. 

 Wrestling, as an art, also was revived, and many 

 treatises were written on it in the sixteenth and 

 seventeenth centuries, from which we learn that it 

 was often practised in connexion with boxing, form- 

 ing the same compound as the ancient pancratium. 

 The famous painter, Albert Durer, wrote Armorum 

 tractandorum Meditatio (in 1412). It still exists in 

 manuscript at Breslau. Modern horsemanship had 

 its origin in Italy. The first riding-school was estab- 

 lished at Naples. In the reign of Henry VIII., it 

 was introduced into England. Running, shooting, 

 hurling, leaping, were not taught systematically ; 

 yet much importance was attached to proficiency in 

 them, in many parts of Europe, on account of the 

 numerous popular meetings, like those which still 

 exist in Switzerland. Even at the present day, 

 young women, with kilted coats, run races at a cer- 

 tain festival in Mecklenburg. Swimming, at this 

 period, was not taught as an art. Where there were 

 convenient places for bathing, children naturally 



learned it. Elsewhere little pains were taken to in 

 struct them in this useful branch of gymnastics; 

 though in many parts of Europe there were races on 

 and in the water. 



In the age of wigs, gymnastics declined, and effe- 

 minate pleasures took their place. Riding, fencing, 

 vaulting, and dancing alone remained, and even these 

 were gradually neglected by the people, and con- 

 fined to the nobility, on which account these exercises 

 were sometimes called the exercises of the nobles ; at 

 least, this was the case on the European continent. 

 In England, where noble families never formed so 

 distinct a caste as in other countries of Europe, those 

 branches of gymnastics which still survived, were 

 more generally practised. The Greeks had, besides 

 the combats with the castus, a contest of boxing, 

 termed sphceromachia, because the combatants had 

 balls in their hands. Boxing, taught with cautjon, 

 is an invigorating exercise, and the skilful boxer is 

 always furnished with natural arms. The art of 

 cudgel-playing is a useful exercise, as practised in 

 France, where it is different from that which is prac- 

 tised iii England. 



In the last century, when men broke loose from 

 the yoke of authority, and thinking and thoughtless 

 heads began to speculate deeply or frivolously on the 

 existing order of things, education began to receive 

 its share of attention, and the better sort of teachers 

 saw that gymnastics must soon be introduced among 

 the other branches of instruction. Salzmann, a Ger- 

 man clergyman, was the first instructer of youth, at 

 whose institution in Thuringia bodily exercises were 

 taught, in the latter part of last century. These 

 were principally running, leaping, swimming, climb- 

 ing, balancing. Guts-Muths wrote a very respect- 

 able treatise upon modern gymnastics, which, as the 

 first, deserves much praise. He afterwards wrote a 

 more enlarged work on the same subject. (See 

 Guts-Muths). The results of this system of exercise, 

 aided by the healthy situation of Salzmaun's school, 

 are deserving of notice. In thirty-two years, 334 

 scholars, from various nations, were educated at this 

 establishment ; and not one scholar died there. 

 Seven or eight families also were connected with the 

 institution ; and from these only three children died 

 during the same period, and two of these were under 

 a year old. In some few existing establishments, this 

 example was imitated; but the age was still too 

 effeminate, former manners too prevalent, to allow 

 gymnastics a proper place in education. 



The French revolution broke out, and Europe 

 received a warlike character. Germany was con- 

 quered by the French, and the desire to repulse them 

 became general, but no hope of immediate resistance 

 existed. All eyes were naturally turned towards the 

 youth ; and while there was a general desire of re- 

 viving in the nation a patriotic spirit, Jahn (q. v.) 

 conceived the idea of establishing gymnasia for two 

 reasons to prepare the young for a future war 

 against the French, and to bring together in the 

 gymnasia youths of all classes, who might be inspired 

 with a love for their common country. Doctor 

 Jahn established his first Turnplatz, the German 

 name for gymnasium, near Berlin, in 1811. But the 

 disasters which the French armies experienced in 

 Russia, led the Germans to a war against France 

 much sooner than the most sanguine had hoped. 

 When the peace of Paris was concluded, the gym- 

 nasia, which had been closed during the time of war, 

 were reopened ; and, when the Germans found them- 

 selves disappointed in their expectations of liberal 

 institutions, when the princes broke their solemn pro- 

 mises, the gymnasia were made use of to inspire the 

 youths with an ardour for liberty. Many imprudent 

 steps were taken by the German people, and Jahu 



