750 



HISTORICAL PAINTING HISTORY. 



Cynesi on the southern coast, the Tartessi near the 

 pillars of Hercules, and the Sicani and Siculi. The 

 two first nations were probably driven by the Iberians 

 from Gaul to Spain, and the two latter by the Iberians 

 from Spain to Italy. The Iberians, who were dis- 

 tinguished for their love of liberty, their warlike and 

 cruel spirit, were followed by the Celts, of whom a 

 portion remained unmixed, under the name of Cetiici, 

 while another part united with the Iberians, and 

 formed with them the gallant Celtiberi. To these 

 inliabitants, Phoenician and Greek colonists were after- 

 wards joined, and finally Roman. Those colonists 

 dwelt for the most part on the straits, and were dis- 

 tinguished for civilization and an extensive commerce. 

 The first conquests in Spain were made by the Cartha- 

 ginians after the first Punic war (about 240 B.C.). first 

 under Hamilcar, and subsequently under Hasdrubal, 

 who founded Carthago Nova (the present Carthagena) . 

 The Romans limited the Carthaginians to the river Iber; 

 but Hannibal captured Saguntum (see Saguntum), and 

 thus gave rise to the second Punic war. The armies 

 of Rome, under Scipio, expelled the Carthaginians ; 

 but the nations beyond the mountains, the Celtiberi, 

 Carbetani, Vaccaei, &c., continued free, and the 

 northern and western tribes were as yet unknown. 

 These tribes, who had hitherto subsisted on the pay 

 of tlie Carthaginians, and on the plunder of the 

 southern Spaniards, began a war with the Romans, 

 which ended, 200 years after, with their entire sub- 

 jugation. Cato was the first (about 196 B. C.) who 

 was successful against them, and T. Sempronius 

 Gracchus forced the Celtiberi to sue for peace. But 

 the avarice, perfidy, and barbarity of the Roman gen- 

 erals soon created new wars. The Lusitani took 

 up arms under Viriathus, but submitted, after the 

 Romans had got rid of him by artifice. Immediately 

 after, the Numantian war broke out, which Scipio 

 Africanus terminated, after a fearful battle, by the 

 capture of Numantia (see Numantia), 133 B. C. 

 The Romans remained in quiet possession of the 

 eastern and southern coasts, and maintained the 

 respect of the nations in the interior of the south. 

 The famous Sertorius finally subdued the Celtiberi 

 and Lusitani, and compelled them to receive Roman 

 manners and tactics. Augustus first subdued the 

 northern countries hi the celebrated Cantabrian 

 war ; though single tribes, such as the Vascones and 

 Artabri retained their freedom. At first, the Romans 

 divided Spain into Hispania Citerior and Ulterior, 

 and afterwards into Bastica, Lusitania, and Hispania 

 Tarragonensis, and finally into seven distinct pro- 

 vinces. Even in the earliest times, the soil was 

 celebrated for fertility. It abounded in the base and 

 precious metals, which the Phoenicians exported 

 thence. It moreover produced excellent horses and 

 sheep, and was fruitful in wine, oil, and grain. See 

 Spam. 



HISTORICAL PAINTING. See Painting. 



HISTORICAL SCIENCES and HISTORICAL 

 LITERATURE (see History, Geography, Chronol- 

 ogy, Numismatics, Genealogy, Heraldry, Diplomatics, 

 Antiquity). The Bibliotheca Historia-geographica 

 (more than 9000 articles), published by Ensliu, at 

 Berlin, in 1825, is a catalogue of all the valuable 

 works on history, geography, and the auxiliary 

 sciences, which have appeared in Germany especially, 

 from 1750 to 1824. 



HISTORY (from the Greek ,V e ,**) ; a word, 

 which, with the progress of the science it designates, 



According to Verrius Placcug, rerum cognitio prasen- 

 tium, the knowledge of things present; so that tbe idea of 

 narration seems to be a secondary meaning of history. The 

 German Geschichte (from the verb geschehen, to happen), 

 on the other hand, means originally something which baa 

 happened, and secondarily the relation of events. 



lias received a more and more extensive meaning, 

 until it lias come to signify that science, which 

 treats of man in all his social relations, political, 

 commercial, religious, moral, and literary, as far 

 as they are the result of general influences extending 

 to large masses of men, and embracing both the past 

 and the present, including therefore every thing 

 which acts upon men, considered as members of a 

 society ; its object is to represent the relations in which 

 man exists, and the influences to which he is subject, 

 with truth and clearnes-s.f In investigating these 

 relations, and dispersing the clouds which often 

 envelope truth, history is a science ; in exhibiting its 

 treasures of truth, an art. Individuals, events, actions, 

 discoveries, measures, are historical as far as they 

 have a bearing upon the many, in their relations to 

 each other ; or as far as they disclose a truth, im- 

 portant with respect to the relations above-mentioned. 

 In other words, man in society is the subject of his- 

 tory ; and, as the term society may be used in a more 

 or less extensive sense, we have universal histories, 

 which ought to comprise the history of all mankind 

 in its progressive or changing state, if they answered 

 fully to their name ; and histories of single countries, 

 tribes, cities, societies, institutions, and even families. 

 But we cannot speak of the history of an individual, 

 unless he is the representative of many, or was so 

 situated that his steps and actions had a decided 

 bearing upon many. The history of Napoleon, for 

 instance, would be very different from his biography. 

 It is evident, then, that the difference between a 

 history and a chronicle, arises by no means from the 

 importance of their subjects. There are chronicles of 

 empires, and histories of cities ; the former giving an 

 enumeration of events or actions only, whilst the 

 latter exhibits the changes which man has undergone 

 in that city, in regard to his social relations. Bio- 

 graphy is the description of the life of an individual, 

 always keeping the individual in view. Again, one 

 or another social relation may be selected as the 

 particular subject of a history ; and hence we have 

 political history, literary history, histories of religions, 

 inventions, &c. As no science but mathematics affords 

 precise definitions and divisions, the question, What 

 entitles a subject to be considered historical, may be 

 very differently answered by different individuals, or 

 nations, or ages ; and a historian may even deviate 

 from his general rule, and relate events or actions 

 which, though not of a decided influence on society, 

 are remarkable or interesting for some other reason ; 

 but in so doing, he deviates from the general rule. 

 The interesting nature of a fact, does not properly 

 render it historical, unless it has an influence upon 

 society ; for instance, an interesting heavenly pheno- 

 menon is not of itself of historical importance, but 

 it becomes so if it exerts, in any way, a wide-spread 

 influence ; for instance, if it be considered as an indica- 

 tion of the divine displeasure, and lead a people to 

 take measures to conciliate the offended Deity, or if 

 the notions entertained respecting it show the state of 

 science at a certain period. 



Having thus touched upon the class of facts which 



t This definition of history does not comprise natural his- 

 tory ; and, according to the common usage of the two terms, 

 they may actually be considered as totally different ; it, 

 however, we should give a definition embracing both, it 

 would be History is the science which embraces all the 

 objects of external experience, including the present and 

 the past ; that is, all tbe phenomena which occur in space 

 or in time. The representation of the present is description, 

 the representation of the past, relation. From this view of 

 history the Germans derive their meaning of the phrase 

 historical sciences, by which they mean all those branches of 

 sciences, whose subjects are derived from experience or 

 from the external world, and are perceived by the senses, 

 in contradistinction from tbe abstract sciences, as matlie- 

 matics and metaphysics. 



