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LOGIC LOGOS. 



exquisite pictures is fifty-two; the arches mid pilasters 

 are adorned with grotesque, paintings, executed by 

 (iiovanni da Udinr, so titmmis in this branch, also 

 under the direction of Raphael. 



LOGIC (\tyiitn, i. e. la-irmpii); the science of the 

 laws of thought, and the correct connexion of ideas. 

 It is not certain, however, whether the name was 

 derived originally from thought or from language, 

 because both may be designated by Aoyo,-, i. e. rea- 

 son and word. In German, this science has also 

 been called Denk-Lehre, or I'erstandes-Lehre (rule 

 of thinking, or rule of understanding), because logic 

 strives to represent, in a scientific way, those laws 

 which the understanding is bound to follow in think- 

 ing, and without the observance of which, no correct 

 conclusions are possible. Logic is valuable, not 

 only as affording rules for the practical use of the 

 understanding, but also as a science preparatory to 

 all other sciences, particularly mental philosophy, as 

 it aflbrds the rules for giving scientific connexion to 

 all knowledge, the laws of thinking determining the 

 character of scientific arrangement. But, inasmuch 

 as the laws of logic can only determine the form of 

 our knowledge, but can by no means teach us how to 

 obtain the materials of knowledge, and gain a clear 

 insight into things (which is the business of mental 

 philosophy, properly so called), in so far logic has 

 been, of late, separated from intellectual philosophy. 

 But if, as is not unfrequently done, all sciences are 

 divided into the historical (those which proceed from 

 experience, as history, natural philosophy, medicine, 

 &c.) and the philosophical (the subjects of which 

 do not fall within the domain of experience), logic 

 is a philosophical science, because the laws of the 

 connexion of thoughts and ideas are founded in 

 reason itself, and not in experience, and the sub- 

 jects of logic are, therefore, capable of a demonstra- 

 tive certainty beyond those of any other philosophi- 

 cal science. Logic has not unfrequently been over- 

 valued, particularly by the ancient philosophers. It 

 should always be kept in mind, that the most syste- 

 matic order, alone, does not render assertions truth. 

 The province of logic has been enlarged or restricted 

 by different philosophers. Among the ancients, 

 logic was made to include the deeper philosophical 

 investigation of the general characteristics of truth, 

 or the essential conditions of the truth of our know- 

 ledge, which some modern philosophers have re- 

 ferred to metaphysics. Logic may be divided into 

 the pure and the applied ; the former treats of the 

 general laws and operations of thought (conceiving, 

 judging, concluding), and their products (notion, 

 judgment, conclusion). Applied logic treats of 

 thought under particular and special relations, which 

 are to be taken into consideration in applying the 

 general laws of thought, viz. the connexions of 

 thought with other operations of the mind, and the 

 impediments and limitations which it thereby experi- 

 ences, as, also, the means of counteracting them. 

 For the first scientific treatment of logic, we are to 

 look to the Greeks. Zeno of Elea is called the 

 father of logic and dialectics ; but it was then treated 

 with particular reference to the art of disputation, 

 and soon degenerated into the minister of sophistry. 

 The sophists and the Megarean school (founded by 

 Euclid of Megara) greatly developed this art. The 

 latter, therefore, became known under the name of i 

 the heuristic or dialectic school, and is famous for the ; 

 invention of several sophisms. The first attempt to | 

 represent the forms of thinking, in abstracto, on a 

 wide scale, and in a purely scientific manner, was 

 made by Aristotle. His logical writings were called 

 by later nges, organon, and for almost two thousand 

 years after him maintained authority in the schools of 

 the philosophers. His investigations were directed, 



at the same time, to the criterion of truth, in which 

 path Epicurus, Zeno, the founder of the stoic school, 

 Chrysippus, and others followed him. Logic, or 

 dialectics, enjoyed great esteem in later times, par- 

 ticularly in the middle ages, so that it was considered 

 almost as the spring of all science, and was taught as 

 a liberal art from the eighth century. The triumph 

 of logic was the scholastic philosophy (which was 

 but a new form of the ancient sophistry) ; and theo- 

 logy, particularly, became filled with verbal subtilties. 

 Raymundus Lullius strove to give logic another form. 

 The scholastics were attacked by Campanella, Gas- 

 sendi, Peter Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee), Bacon and 

 others, with well-founded objections. Descartes and 

 Malebranche again confounded logic and metaphy- 

 sics. Locke, Leibnitz, and Wolf, Tchirnhausen, 

 Thomasius, Crusius, Ploucquet, Lambert (in his New 

 Organon), Reimarus, and others, have rendered 

 great service to modern logic. Kant, Fichte, Schel- 

 ling, Hegel, have maintained very various opinions 

 on the subject. Whateley's Treatise, on Loic, first 

 published in the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, and 

 since in a separate volume, is one of the best treatises, 

 in English, on the subject. 



LOGOS (Greek, *.oy*>s , from Xeys.v, to speak) has a 

 great variety of meanings : 1. language, speech in 

 general ; hence, 2. every manifestation of the reason 

 and understanding by language, so that it has the 

 meaning of oration, eloquence, conversation, address, 

 also of the right and opportunity of speaking, &c. 

 Language being peculiar to man, as a reasonable 

 being, and speech presupposing thought, logos signi- 

 fies, 3. reason, the faculty of thinking in general ; 4. 

 every thing which is a production of the latter, as 

 notions, conceptions, demonstration, calculation, ex- 

 planation, condition, and relation, nay, even wisdom 

 and logic. Thus logos has the meaning both of ratio and 

 oratio. * In C hristian theology, the word JUys; , as used 

 in certain passages of the Scriptures, has been the 

 source of continual disputes ever since the third cen- 

 tury of our era. The passage in the Bible which 

 gives rise to this discussion, is the opening of the 

 gospel of St John : " In the beginning was the 

 Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word 

 was God. The same was in the beginning with 

 God. All things were made by him, and without 

 him was not any thing made that was made," &c. 

 In the Greek text, the expression here translated 

 Word (le verbe, das wort, &c.) is Aoya,-. What is 

 here to be understood by Xoyoj, what is its essential 

 character, whether it is a person of the Deity or not, 

 the creative intellect of God, or the Son, through 

 whom he created, or the divine truth which was to 

 be revealed, &c. this work is not the proper place 

 to examine, nor will our limits permit us even to 

 enumerate the different opinions which have been 

 entertained on this interesting point of Christian 

 metaphysics. We can refer the reader to no better 

 source of information than the General History of 

 Christianity and the Church (in German), by Augus- 

 tus Neander, Hamburg, 1827, et seq. a work of 

 distinguished research and impartiality. The Roman 

 Catholic doctrine of the Ay; (verbum) makes it a 

 person, and not a mere name, and maintains that the 

 Word is called God, not by catachresis, but in the 

 strict and rigorous meaning of the term ; that the 

 most ancient fathers of the church always taught thr 

 divinity of the Word, and that they derived the idea 

 from the Holy Scriptures alone, and not from the 



* A slight study of cultivated languages will show bow 

 generally the wrd signifying speech, or smne word derived 

 from the original verb to speak, has acquired a ceryexten. 

 ded meaning; as the Latin res, from the Greek fw>, I speak, 

 Aoyof from xynr. Emer and Deber, signifying word, are the 

 most generic terms in tha Oriental languages. 



