PHILOLOGY. 



523 



with that spirit of calm reflection which regards pa- 

 ganism as a necessary link in the chain of human 

 development. The zeal which drove the first pro- 

 pagators of the new faith to act and to suffer for 

 their religion naturally excited them against a litera- 

 ture which sprang from a pagan period, and breathed 

 a pagan spirit. Another cause of the decline of 

 learning is found in the irruption of the rude Teutonic 

 tribes into the Roman empire, by which many liter- 

 ary institutions, particularly those established by 

 the emperors for the education of the higher classes, 

 were ruined. But the clergy needed a learned edu- 

 cation, especially the knowledge of ancient langua- 

 ges, to prepare them for the discharge of their re- 

 ligious duties. This brought the cultivation of pro- 

 i'iuie science into the hands of the clergy, who con- 

 nected schools with the abbeys and convents, in 

 which the (so called) seven liberal arts were taught. 

 The institutions of the Christian priesthood, there- 

 fore, now became the ark in which the ancient sci- 

 ences, such as they then were, were preserved 

 amidst the ruin of civilization. In these seminaries 

 of instruction generally the text-books of Marti- 

 anus Capella (461 A. D.) and Cassiodorus (who died 

 563) were used, as they had been in the schools of the 

 empire. Such clerical schools are first found, in 

 the sixth century, in France, later in Ireland, Scot- 

 land and England. The studies pursued were, in- 

 deed, at first limited to the purposes of theology. 

 The Latin language, therefore, took a new colour, 

 particularly as hardly any other language was writ- 

 ten ; and the want of classical knowledge, the in- 

 fluence of clerical and religious conceptions, and 

 the rise of modern European languages, modified its 

 character. Thus originated monkish Latin. The 

 progress of learning was much promoted by the 

 foundation of the Benedictine order by Benedict of 

 Norcia (died 544), in the rules of which it was or- 

 dered that, in every convent of the order, instruction 

 should be given, books copied, and libraries collec- 

 ted. The schools which Charlemagne and his learn- 

 ed friends established conduced to the study of the 

 ancient languages. But it was not till the tenth 

 century that good taste, and learned education, and 

 a comparatively pure Latinity, may be said to have 

 existed. These had their origin in the frequent 

 reading and copying of the classics. In this consists 

 the chief merit of the congregation of Cluny, and, 

 at a later time, of the order of Cistercians and Car- 

 thusians (since the twelfth century). The Arabian 

 literature and language spread considerably after the 

 seventh century, and gained much influence. Phi- 

 lology was preserved and fostered by the Arabians, 

 and, particularly, Greek literature revived. Their 

 own language received a learned character as early 

 as the seventh century. 



In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, many great 

 men distinguished themselves by a profound study 

 of classical literature, especially in Italy (where, af- 

 ter the twelfth century, several universities were es- 

 tablished), in France and England. To these be- 

 long Lanfranc of Pavia and his pupils Anselm of 

 Aosta, the learned Gerbert (pope Sylvester II., who 

 died 1003), bishop Abbo of Fleury (died 1004), and 

 Bruno of Cologne (died 1101). Learned theology 

 led to the study of philosophy, and this to Plato and 

 Aristotle. Men like Abelard (died 1142), Bernard 

 of Clairvaux, John of Salisbury, Roger Bacon, and 

 others, understood Greek, and wrote better Latin 

 than their predecessors ; but they had to struggle 

 hard with the ignorant and intolerant clergy, after 

 which (in the thirteenth century) the study of the 

 Roman classics and the cultivation of a purer Lati- 

 nity ceased again almost entirely. In the thirteenth 

 and fourteenth centuries, we find some institutions in 



which the knowledge of the Oriental languages, as 

 far as was necessary for missionary purposes, parti- 

 cularly Hebrew and Arabic, were taught ; and the 

 knowledge of them was increased by the intercourse 

 between Christians and Mohammedans in the cru- 

 sades ; but the languages could hardly be said to be 

 scientifically cultivated. 



In the middle of the fourteenth century, the genius 

 of classical antiquity revived again in Italy, whence 

 a more profound study and a more elegant criticism 

 of the classic languages and literature diffused itself 

 over all parts of Europe. Italy became the first 

 theatre of true philologists. Two of her greatest 

 national writers, Petrarca and Boccaccio, enthusias- 

 tic for the productions of antiquity, laboured effec- 

 tually for the diffusion of Roman and Greek litera- 

 ture. Cicero and Virgil attracted, particularly, the 

 attention of the former, yet he induced Boccaccio 

 to learn the language of Homer and Plato from fugi- 

 tive Greeks a study in which his own advanced age 

 prevented him from succeeding. Boccaccio obtain- 

 ed the appointment of John of Ravenna, a pupil of 

 Petrarca, as teacher of Roman literature in Florence, 

 his native city, and of Leontius Pilatus, and, after 

 him, Manuel Chrysoloras (1397), as teachers of 

 Greek literature. Through the efforts of the latter, 

 as well as those of Argyropulus, and others, wiio 

 fled to Italy when the eastern empire was destroyed, 

 a more thorough knowledge of the Greek language 

 and literature was diffused by writings and oral in- 

 struction. Lectures on ancient literature v/ere de- 

 livered in all the larger cities of Italy, even in those 

 which had no universities. The enthusiasm of the 

 teachers communicated itself to their hearers, and it 

 became customary with republics and princely houses 

 (from 1400 to 1450) to patronise classical literature, 

 and to restore a purer taste by its study. This study, 

 in fact, was elevated to a national concern. A zeal 

 for classical literature animated all classes in Italy 

 in the fifteenth century, and every where philologi- 

 cal societies were founded. Many private and pub- 

 lic libraries were also established, and the treasures 

 stored up in the convents made more accessible, 

 since the times of Petrarca and Boccaccio, who 

 themselves collected the works of Roman and Greek 

 writers, and circulated copies of them. Cosmo of 

 Medici founded at Florence the Platonic academy 

 (1429) ; his nephew Lorenzo collected the richest 

 treasures of literature and art, and attracted the 

 most distinguished scholars to that city of the muses. 

 In Rome, Nicolas V. was active ; in Milan, Vis- 

 conti ; in Verona, Delia Scala ; in Sicily, king Ro- 

 bert ; in Venice, Aldus Manutius formed a circle 

 enthusiastically devoted to classical literature, and the 

 new art of printing was particularly serviceable to 

 the study. The works of ancient authors were now 

 rapidly multiplied : collections and commentators 

 appeared, and philology was enabled to assume a 

 scientific form, as diS'erent scholars could avail 

 themselves with comparative ease of the fruits of 

 each other's labours, and the standard works of taste 

 and criticism became comparatively secure from loss 

 and injury. The study of the classics and of an- 

 cient languages was no longer confined to the pur- 

 poses of theology, but was directed to the general 

 improvement of the human mind. Successful imi- 

 tations of the ancients were now produced, and a 

 purer Latin style arose, on which, perhaps, too 

 great a value was laid. To this period belong Leo- 

 nardo Bruni of Arezzo (1370 to 1444), Poggio Brac- 

 ciolini (1380 to 1459), Lorenzo Valla (1407 to 1457), 

 Nic. Perrotus, Franc. Philelphus, Pompon. Lactus, 

 Marsilio Ficino (1433 1499) and Angelo Poliziano 

 (14541492). 



From Italy, this renewed zeal for the cultivation 



