532 



PHILOSOPHY, NATURAL. 



sensation only changes its form, as the ice when it 

 is dissolved into water, and evaporated in vapour." 

 (See Condillac.) The simplicity of his method, and 

 the clearness of his exposition, awakened the great- 

 est interest. He became the leader of a school still 

 predominating in France. The Encyclopaedists (see 

 Encyclopedic, the French} contributed most to its 

 propagation, particularly Diderot, D'Alembert and 

 Helvetius. The eflect was striking : the most diffi- 

 cult of all sciences, which requires the deepest study 

 and the most persevering reflection, was brought 

 within the reach of the multitude ; every one could 

 talk about metaphysics. But it was overlooked that 

 this system did not lead men a step nearer to the 

 solution of the highest and most important problems. 

 The system was carried further and farther, not 

 always in accordance with the views of the author, 

 but according to the direction given by him. Sen- 

 sation (the lowest degree of intellectual action, and 

 that in which we are most dependent upon the exter- 

 nal world) being now considered the essential prin- 

 ciple in all the operations of the mind, the distinction 

 between sensation and perception which Locke had 

 made, being rejected, and man being regarded only 

 as an animal of a somewhat finer organization than 

 the others, but moved only by sensual impulses (as 

 in the system of Helvetius), the consequence was, 

 that the material world was considered as the only 

 form of existence, mind as only a connexion of atoms, 

 the basis of its actions egotism, and the end of these 

 actions a refined sensuality ; thence the belief in 

 moral freedom, virtue, God, providence and immor- 

 tality, was looked upon as a folly unworthy of a re- 

 flecting mind, and a complete materialism became 

 predominant. We have said that Condillac's system 

 continues to predominate in France ; still, however, 

 several distinguished philosophers follow another 

 path, and we are far from asserting that the conse- 

 quences which we have ascribed to the system still 

 exist in their full extent. It may be safely said, that 

 there prevails in France, at present, a deep-felt want 

 of the belief in a God, which not being able to find 

 satisfaction in the dogmas of the Catholic church, the 

 religion of the overwhelming majority is in an unset- 

 tled state. Of this want, even the propagation of 

 the extravagant doctrines of the St Simonians, which 

 would be otherwise inconceivable, is a strong proof. 

 But there are still more persons in France whose 

 minds are unillumined by a belief in immortality, than 

 in any other civilized nation. The acute understand- 

 ing and inexhaustible wit of Voltaire, the clear intel- 

 lect of D'Alembert, at the head of the Encyclopae- 

 dists, spread through society the dangerous doctrines 

 just mentioned. Rousseau's enthusiasm stands alone 

 in the French literature of that time. The revolution, 

 which produced so great a change in the character 

 of the French, and made tiiem more acquainted with 

 foreign nations than their national pride had allowed, 

 especially with the Germans, had also considerable 

 influence upon their philosophy. The want of a 

 deeper, more earnest philosophy, is apparent even in 

 Rousseau's works ; still more in those of St Pierre, 

 Chateaubriand, Claude St Martin, and the marquis 

 Bonald ; also Prosper de Barante, in his work on the 

 literature of France in the eighteeenth century, was 

 actuated by this idea ; and De Gerando, Villers. and 

 the baroness de Stael-Holstein, from the same feel- 

 ing, have directed attention to German philosophy. 

 Among those who have attempted to give philosophy 

 a better character, Laromiguiere is distinguished. 

 His Lecons tie Philosophic, ou Essai sur les Families 

 de VAme (2d ed., Paris, 1820, 2 vols.), is valuable. 

 He opposes the doctrine of Condillac, as to the first 

 and sole principle. He stands nearer to Locke than 

 to Condillac. Count Destutt de Tracy has become 



well known by his Ideologic (3d edit., Paris, 1817). 

 Locke and Condillac are his idols. He extends some- 

 what the principle of Condillac, and considers sensa- 

 tions as predicable not only of the objects of the 

 external world, but also of those of the inner. Ch. 

 Viet, de Bonstetten's Etudes de V Homme (Geneva, 

 1821, 2 vols.) is a valuable work, written in the spirit 

 of the higher psychology, but more in the shape of 

 sketches and hints than of a methodical system. 

 Bonstetten strives particularly to defend the emotions 

 of the heart, the feelings, against the coldness of 

 logicians, who derive all the operations of the inind 

 from ideas only. We must mention also De Gerando, 

 whose Hist, comparee des Systemes de la Philosophic 

 (Paris, 1804, 3 vols.) lately appeared in a new edition. 

 Victor Cousin has opened a new path. He ap- 

 proaches the German philosophy. (See his article.) 

 His introductory C'oursde Philosophic has lately been 

 very well translated into English by Mr Linberg 

 (Boston, 1832, 1 vol.) We ought to mention, also, 

 the works of St Simon, as among the modern works 

 which have attracted most attention. (See St Simon.) 

 We shall conclude our remarks with a passage of the 

 article Philosophie, from the Encyclopedic Moderne : 

 " France cannot be said, at present, to have any 

 system of intellectual philosophy properly its own. 

 Fluctuating between the spiritualism of Germany, 

 which rejects empiricism, and the views of the Scotch 

 school, which admits the authority of experience, it 

 adopts some views from each, whence results a sort 

 of eclecticism, favourable at least to investigation, 

 even if it is not, in all its parts, conformable to 

 truth." 



For the Italian philosophers of the middle ages, 

 see Italy, division Italian Literature. There is no 

 school of modern Italian philosophy. For a com- 

 plete history of philosophy, we refer to Tennemann's 

 History of Philosophy (in German ; Leipsic, 1798 

 1810, 18 vols., in large octavo), of which a synopsis 

 has been also published, and a translation of the 

 latter, by Viet. Cousin (Paris, 1829, 2 vols., 8vo) ; 

 also to Ritter's History of Philosophy (in German), 

 recently published. \ 



PHILOSOPHY, NATURAL, OB PHYSICS (phy* 

 sica, physice, from <putri;, nature), is that branch of 

 science which treats of the laws and properties of 

 matter. Natural history (q. v.) describes the ex- 

 ternal characters and appearances of natural objects, 

 while chemistry (q. v.) separates them into their ele- 

 ments, and explains the modes of the composition 

 and mutual action of these elements upon each 

 other : natural philosophy, on the other hand, deals 

 with matter in its integrant forms, and points out 

 those properties which belong universally to matter, 

 and those laws whose operation is implied in the 

 very definition of the term matter. It therefore 

 comprises astronomy (q. v.), which explains the 

 causes that keep in motion, and bind in fixed orbits, 

 the great train of worlds and systems of worlds com- 

 posing the universe ; mechanics (q. v.), in its differ- 

 ent divisions (see Acoustics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, 

 Pneumatics) ; optics (q. v.), or the science which ex- 

 plains the motions and laws of light; the laws of 

 heat, electricity and magnetism, except in regard to 

 their chemical properties, also fall within the juris- 

 diction of natural philosophy. In respect to the 

 method of investigation, it is sometimes by mathe- 

 matical calculation, and sometimes by observation 

 (experimental philosophy) ; but these two instru- 

 ments of truth are more commonly united in illustrat- 

 ing and confirming each other's results than employed 

 in distinct departments of research. In regard to 

 the theory of matter (q. v. ) , natural philosophers are 

 at present divided, the one school maintaining that 

 all bodies are composed of continuous matter, the 



