POLYTHEISM POMBAL. 



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grange, Laplace, Berthollet, Fourcroy, and many 

 other distinguished individuals, were its professors. 

 It is now established in the buildings of the ancient 

 college of Navarre. Napoleon did much for it, and 

 under him it received considerable modifications. 

 The pupils were obliged to live in the building, and 

 wear a uniform. Its object is to diffuse the know- 

 ledge of the mathematical, physical and chemical 

 sciences, and to prepare the pupils for the artillery 

 service and the various departments of engineering', 

 military, naval, and civil. The number of pupils is 

 limited to 300. The terms for the students not 

 supported on the foundation are 1000 francs a year, 

 independent of the expense of uniform and books. 

 The pupil, at the time of admission, must be more 

 than sixteen and less than twenty years old. The 

 course of studies lasts two years, in certain cases 

 three. A rigorous examination precedes admission, 

 and another examination takes place before the 

 pupils leave the institution, and it is invariably at- 

 tended by the greater number of the marshals of 

 France, together with many of the most distinguish- 

 ed scholars ; "and," says an English writer, "the 

 replies of the pupils might well astonish a senior 

 wrangler of Cambridge, or a medallist of Dublin." 

 The origin of this establishment, and the high 

 character of the course of instruction, has always 

 inspired the students with a warm love of their 

 country. March 30, 1814, they fought bravely 

 against the allies. In April, 1816, the school was 

 abolished, the students appearing not sufficiently 

 devoted to the Bourbons, who, however, were ob- 

 liged to re-establish it, in September of the same 

 year. In the revolution of July, 1830, the students 

 immediately took part with the people, and were 

 of the greatest use, as well by their military know- 

 ledge as by their heroic enthusiasm ; and several 

 of the most important attacks during those memo- 

 rable days were conducted by these youths. The 

 ecole polytechnique is a favourite institution with 

 the whole nation. See France. See the work of 

 M. Fourcy on this school, and La Correspondance 

 de I' Ecole Polytechnique, by M. Hachette. 



POLYTHEISM ; worship of several or many 

 gods, opposed to monotheism (q. v.), (from -roXi/j, 

 many, and has, god). The origin of polytheism 

 may be different. We find tribes whose polytheism 

 can be ascribed, almost beyond doubt, to the deifi- 

 cation of the powers and phenomena of nature ; but 

 witli others it cannot be so clearly traced. As to 

 the views of the polytheism of antiquity, they may, 

 perhaps, be classified under the following heads ; 



1. Monotheism was the pure religion revealed to 

 the progenitors of the human race, handed down 

 through the patriarchs, and, after its decline, reviv- 

 ed in its purity by Moses, and taught to the chil- 

 dren of Israel, whilst all nations except this chosen 

 one deviated more and more from the true revela- 

 tion, and created a host of gods, good and evil. See 

 Monotheism. 



2. Man, beginning with the savage state, pro- 

 ceeded in every thing from the concrete to the ab- 

 stract ; from the observation of nature, he rose to 

 the natural sciences ; from the measurement of 

 space to mathematics ; from the idea of just deal- 

 ing, so natural in families, to that of politics and 

 ethics ; from the observation of beautiful things to 

 ideal beauty ; and from the knowledge of effects, 

 only ascribable to higher powers, to the veneration 

 of the powers of nature, to polytheism, and from 

 this to monotheism. The chief objections to this 

 view are that there are numerous nations which re- 

 fined their polytheism more and more, but never 

 arrived at monotheism, the two most civilized nations 

 of antiquity not excepted, and that we meet with 



monotheism in the very records where, according 

 to this view, we should expect it least, those of 

 the most ancient races, as given in the Bible. 



3. Another view is taken of polytheism by 

 Creuzer, in his Symbolics and Mythology of the 

 Ancient Nations, particularly of the Greeks (partly 

 translated, partly rewrought by Guigniaut, in his 

 Religions de I'Antiquite, consiilcrees princlpalement 

 dans leurs Formes symboliques et mythologiques, 

 Paris, 1824 et seq.). He considers Greek polytheism 

 as presupposing a whole system of ancient Asiatic 

 poetry, philosophy and theology, the symbols of 

 which gradually lost their hidden meaning, but still 

 continued long in use as forms. 



4. Others have considered the polytheism of the 

 Greeks as the mere forms under which natural science 

 had been preserved and taught in previous ages. 



5. Some consider polytheism as having originated 

 from a corruption of monotheism ; others regard it 

 as a deification of the powers of nature. Even the 

 Greek polytheism is considered by many as indica- 

 ting strongly the pre-existence of monotheism. See 

 Mythology. 



The two extremes of polytheism may be consider- 

 ed to be dualism (q. v.), and pantheism (q. v.). The 

 former is the belief in two original beings, a good 

 and an evil spirit. It forms the basis of several 

 Oriental religions, and is considered by many as 

 merely a misconception of the primitive monotheism. 

 Pantheism originates from polytheism. It makes 

 the world itself God, and God the world, the One 

 and the Whole. 



POLYXENA; daughter of Priam and of Hecuba, 

 whose fate is related by the post-Homeric epic 

 poets. Achilles loved her, and advantage was 

 taken of his passion for her to effect his death. Ac- 

 cording to some accounts, she returned his affection, 

 and killed herself on his tomb. But according to 

 the most common story, she was sacrificed to his 

 Manes, either in Thrace or at his tomb. 



POMBAL, SEBASTIAN JOSEPH CARVALHO, count 

 of Oeyras, more known as marquis of Pombal, a 

 celebrated Portuguese statesman, was born in 1699, 

 at the castle of Soura, near Coimbra, and died in 

 1782. His father was a captain of the poorer class 

 of the nobility ; but his mother, a Mendoza, and 

 his uncle, a respectable ecclesiastic, opened to the 

 young Carvalho, who, after having studied law at 

 Coimbra, entered the army, the prospect of promo- 

 tion. Nature had given him all the qualities which 

 indicate a person destined for rule ; a tall and strong 

 frame, a vigorous constitution, a daring eye, a fiery 

 temperament, strong passions, a penetrating judg- 

 ment, and the most captivating address. In every 

 thing which he undertook, he led the way. Hav- 

 ing been banished from Lisbon on account of some 

 youthful imprudences, the offspring of his ardent 

 temperament, he passed several years at Soura de- 

 voted to study. While there, he gained the affections 

 of Theresa de Noronha Almada, a rich widow, 

 whose proud relations rejected with disdain his ad- 

 vances. He eloped, however, with the object of 

 his passion, and his courage and resolution saved 

 him from the daggers of assassins. At the same 

 time, the contempt with which the family of his 

 wife, the counts of Arcos, treated him, kindled his 

 ambition to rise. lie returned to court, where his 

 address acquired him such high favour, that in 1739 

 he was appointed ambassador to London. Here he 

 became acquainted with the relations between Eng- 

 land and Portugal, and formed the plan of deliver- 

 ing his country from the fetters of the English com- 

 mercial system. The new minister, Peter di Motta, 

 his enemy, recalled him in 1745 ; but the qurm, 

 who was his patroness, sent him to Vienna to act as 

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