RAWDON REARGUARD. 



ilniiiicii. It liaii formerly a fine port on the Adriatic, 

 hii-.'i has been filled up by the accumulation of mud; 

 and the city, though still occupying its former site, 

 s mm- three <ir four miles from the sea. In the 

 iifighlMuirhood, towards Forli is the field of battle, 

 mi which Gas ton de Foix gained a victory over the 

 Spanish and papal troops (1512), and fell. The 

 bones of the emperors Honorius, Constantine, and 

 Valens III., of Galla Placidia, daughter of Theodo- 

 sius the Great, and of Dante, lie in Ravenna. 

 RAWDON, LORD. See Hastings, Francis. 

 RAY. The ray, in ichthyology, is a genus of 

 fishes, of which the generic character is that it has 

 fine oblique spiracles on each side, placed beneath 

 the neck; the head is small, pointed, and not distinct 

 from the body ; the mouth is beneath, transverse, 

 toothed ; the b<xly is broad, thin and flat. The in- 

 dividuals of this genus are all inhabitants of the sea 

 only : they keep at the bottom, and in winter cover 

 themselves with sand and mud. They feed on 

 testaceous animals, fish, or any animal substances 

 whirh they may happen to meet with. They grow 

 to a large size, sometimes exceeding 200 pounds '.in 

 weight. The females are the larger, and produce 

 their young alive, only one at a time, which are en- 

 closed in a black, quadrangular, horny shell. The 

 eyes are half covered with a thin membrane, oblong, 

 placed in the upper part of the head ; above these, 

 in the place of nostrils, is a broad groove, divided 

 by a reticulate membrane, consisting of crested 

 folds, and closed with a valve. Behind this groove 

 are two small semilunar orifices. The tongue is very 

 broad, short and smooth. The ventral fins are 

 covered with a thick skin, and at the base are con- 

 nected with the anal. The flesh is generally eatable; 

 the liver is larger, and produces no small quantity 

 of pure oil. This genus includes the electric ray or 

 torpedo, and skates, the sting-ray and thornbacks, 

 and other species. 

 RAY. See Optics. 



RAY, JOHN, an English naturalist, born in 1628, 

 was the son of a blacksmith, and received his educa- 

 tion at Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship. 

 After the restoration of Charles II., scrupling to 

 sign the declaration against the solemn league and 

 covenant, he resigned his fellowship, and devoted 

 himself to the cultivation of science and literature. 

 In 1 667, he was chosen a fellow of the royal society, 

 to whose Transactions he was a frequent contribu- 

 tor. In 1670, he published a Catalogue of English 

 Plants, which was followed by a Collection of Eng- 

 lish Proverbs, and (1673) an-account of a continent- 

 al tour. He particularly distinguished himself by 

 his improvements in the classification of plants and 

 animals, in his Methodus Plantarum Nova (8vo.) ; 

 Historia Plantarum (3 vols. folio) ; Synopsis Me- 

 thodica Stirpium (8vo.) ; Synopsis Methodica Anima- 

 Hum Quadrupedum ; and a Sylloge Stirpium Euro- 

 pearum extra Britanniam crescentium ; besides 

 which, he published Willughby's Ornithology, and 

 History of Fishes. He was also the author of a 

 popular work entitled, The Wisdom of God mani- 

 fested in the Works of Creation (8vo.) ; and of Mis- 

 cellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution 

 and Changes of the World (8vo.) His death took 

 olace January 17, 1705. The Philosophical Letters 

 of Ray, and those of his correspondent, were pub- 

 lished in 1718, by Dr W. Derham. 



RAYNAL, GUILLAUME THOMAS FRANSOIS, a 

 French writer, was born in 1713, and at an early 

 age entered the society of the Jesuits. He distin- 

 guished himself by his eloquence as a preacher, but, 

 in 1748, quitted the society and went to Paris. 

 Here he gained a subsistence by his pen ; but his 

 first works (History of the English Parliament, and 



History of the Stadtholderate) attracted little notice. 

 His Histoire Philosophique des KtUittgmtltt et du 

 Commerce des Europeens dans les deux hides (1770) 

 gained him reputation, although he was himself so 

 sensible of its errors and defects, that he took a 

 journey through France, England and Holland to 

 obtain information ; and the new edition (1781) was 

 much improved. His free expressions on arbitrary 

 power, priestcraft and superstition, caused his 

 banishment by the parliament, and the condemna- 

 tion of his book by the Sorbonne. After residing 

 in Germany and Switzerland, he finally received 

 permission to return, and arrived in Paris in 1788. 

 In the early part of the revolution, Raynal, who 

 was not favourably disposed to the democratic 

 principles of the day, was in a critical situation ; 

 but, after the fall of the Jacobins, his condition was 

 somewhat improved. He died in 1796. The Histoire 

 Philosophique (new edition, Paris, 1820) has been 

 the most celebrated of his works, but is now little 

 esteemed. Raynal also wrote Revolution des Colonies 

 Anglaises de VAmerique Septentrionale (1781.) 



RAYNOUARD, FRANCIS JUSTE MAKIE, a 

 French poet, born in Provence in 1761, was at first 

 an advocate, and sat in the legislative assembly. 

 He first gained reputation by his Socrate dans le 

 Temple d'Aglaure, a poem, which obtained a prize 

 from the institute. His principal work is the Tern- 

 pliers, a tragedy (1805) ; the historical matter ap- 

 pended to which, concerning the trial of the Tem- 

 plars, is valuable. In 1807, Raynouard became a 

 member of the institute, and, in 1817, succeeded 

 Suard as perpetual secretary of the academy. In 

 181 6, he published a selection from the poetry of 

 the Troubadours (3 vols.), with which are connected 

 the elements of the Lingua Romana, and a grammar 

 of the language of the Troubadours. 



RAZEE. A ship of war cut down to a smallersize. 



RAZORS. See Cutlery. 



RE, OR RI ; the Egyptian name for the sun, con- 

 sidered as a divinity. See Hieroglyphics. 



REACTION. See Mechanics. 



REAL, opposed to the ideal, signifies, 1. the same 

 as true, i. e. actually existing ; 2. in philosophy, 

 that which exists independently of our ideas or im- 

 agination. Hence realism, in philosophy, is the 

 opposite of idealism, and is that philosophical system 

 which conceives external things to exist indepen- 

 dently of our conceptions of them. The external 

 world is differently explained, and realism is divided 

 into different systems, of which that of Spinoza is 

 one of the most important. He supposes one, ori- 

 ginal reality, and teaches that all other things (sub- 

 stances') are but modifications of this one real being, 

 which he conceives to be the Deity. Realism be- 

 comes materialism (q. v.) if it considers matter, or 

 physical substance, as the only original cause of 

 things, and the soul itself as a material substance. 

 Realism is found, also, in dualism. See Dualism, 

 and Idealism. 



REAL. See Rial. 



REAL INJUR1A. (See Injuria.) Real injuria, 

 in German law, is an injury done to the honour of a 

 man by some act of violence, as beating, throwing 

 out of doors, &c. The laws against duels in the 

 eighteenth century imposed heavy punishments on 

 such injuries, even confiscation of goods, &c. The 

 more modern laws are milder. 



REALGAR. 'See Arsenic. 



REALISM; See Real. 



REALISTS ; a philosophical sect, opposed to the 

 nominalists, (q. v.) 



RE A RGUARD. The office of the rearguard of 

 an army is to cover the retreat. It must be com- 

 posed of infantry, with artillery, chasseurs or sharp- 



