REFERENCE REFORMATION. 



rope through a block . Hence to pull a rope out 

 of a block is called vnreeving. 

 REFERENCE. See Arbitration. 

 INFLECTION. See Optics. 

 REFLECTORS. See burning Mirrors. 

 REFORMATION. The reformation of the 

 church, in its head and members, had become the 

 watchword of all the lovers of morality and religion 

 as early as the fifteenth century. Christianity, 

 which was intended to elevate mankind, and to 

 make them happy, had been diverted more and 

 more, in the hands of its priests, from its original 

 design. The successful endeavours of the Roman 

 bishops to extend their spiritual sway over all Christ- 

 endom, to direct the actions of kings, and the im- 

 provement of society, undoubtedly contributed 

 much, in the confusion of the ages which followed 

 tiie irruption of the barbarians into Southern Eu- 

 rope, to soften the savage manners of the race 

 which had trampled down the old world, with what- 

 ever remained of refinement. The Christian mis- 

 sionaries and Monks sowed the seeds of milder 

 manners in the German forests, and among the nor- 

 thern barbarians, and promoted the civilization of 

 the converted nations. Many beneficial conse- 

 quences resulted from the unity of faith and worship; 

 from the dependence of all the Western churches on 

 Rome ; from that legislative supremacy over the 

 nations which compelled the popes to adopt a settled 

 policy, in the middle ages ; and the Roman church 

 may justly claim great merit in regard to the gra- 

 lual formation ot European society. But the church 

 *njoyed her victory with so little moderation ; her 

 servants violated so openly in their lives and doc- 

 trines, the spirit of their Divine Master, that the 

 opposition to priestly despotism which had early 

 arisen in the East, and had been transmitted through 

 numerous sects to the secret societies of the middle 

 ages, became quite active in the thirteenth century, 

 and grew more violent in proportion as the papal 

 power sought to exterminate it with lire and sword. 

 The question, What is truly Christian, and condu- 

 cive to human happiness, in the doctrines and usages 

 of the Roman church ? must often have been sug- 

 gested to the minds of sincere clergymen and intel- 

 ligent laymen. The arrogance of the priests exas- 

 perated the princes ; the encroachments of the men- 

 dicant friars did injury to the secular ecclesiastics ; 

 and a thousand innocent victims of the inquisition 

 called for vengeance. Still the authority of the 

 pope over the public mind, even in the fourteenth 

 century, was such as scarcely to suffer the nnir- 

 murings of discontent to be heard. The writ- 

 ings of Wickcliffe (q. v.) in England soon reached 

 the continent, and aroused Huss (q. v.), with his 

 Bohemian followers. But the fifteenth century 

 was not ripe for a reform, and the papal party 

 was strong enough to suppress every attempt to- 

 wards improvement, as appears alike from the 

 conduct of the princes and the people at the break- 

 ing out of the Hussite disturbances, and from 

 the results of the councils of Constance and Basle. 

 But, soon after, the views of scholars were enlarged 

 by the study of the classics, revived by the emigra- 

 tion of a few learned Greeks ; the means of infor- 

 mation were vastly increased by the art of printing; 

 materials for thinking were laid before the people 

 by instructive works in the vulgar tongues, and by 

 the new universities, of which seven were instituted 

 in Germany alone, between 1451 and 1502 ; the 

 number of learned men increased ; and the intelli- 

 gence for which the reformation was to open a way 

 began to act generally and powerfully. The reform 

 which the liberal divines had warmly advised, with 

 little success, now waited but the call of a master 



spirit. Savonarola (q. v.) arose for this purpose in 

 Florence; but the same funeral pile consumed him 

 and his work together. Some monarch* also at- 

 tempted something. Charles VIII. of France 

 caused the Sorbonne, in 1497, to declare it expedi- 

 ent that a council should be held every ten years, 

 for effecting reforms in the church, and that other- 

 wise the bishops should assemble for that purpose. 

 Maximilian I. laid before the Roman court the 

 strong remonstrances of the German princes, passed 

 in the diets of 1500 and 1510. By the influence of 

 France, an independent council was held at Pisa, in 

 1511, in spite of Pope Julius II ; but although its 

 few speakers conducted themselves with great bold- 

 ness, it was soon overthrown by its own weakness, 

 and by the decrees of the council in the Lateran 

 which was opposed to it in 1512, and which served 

 in the hands of the pope, to palliate his measures 

 anew. In general, in all the plans that had been pro- 

 posed for the reformation of the abuses of the church 

 on one side political ends had too often been inter- 

 mixed, and on the other, in the heat of zeal against 

 individual wrongs, the chief faults in the doctrine 

 and discipline of the church, from which all the other 

 evils originated, had been too much overlooked. 

 Hence nothing took place but fruitless disputes and 

 violent persecutions of the innovators, or futile po- 

 litical negociations, in which the pope always pre- 

 vailed in the end. The services of Reuchlin (q.v.) 

 in the cultivation of the Greek language, and his 

 victory over the opposers of learning in Cologne, 

 had an important effect. The cultivated taste and 

 the sound understanding which appeared in the 

 writings of Erasmus, addressed to the most distin- 

 guished men in church and state, exerted a wider 

 influence, and promoted both the cultivation of 

 classical learning and the diffusion of liberal views 

 on the subject ot religion. Of still greater power 

 over the mass of the people was the host of satires, 

 epigrams, caustic allegories, and coarse jokes, at 

 the expense of the church and the monks, from Re- 

 nard (q.v.) the Fox to the more delicate raillery of 

 these two scholars, who were not ardent nor bold 

 enough to take a decisive step. Thus by the concur- 

 rence of favourable circumstances, and by the pro- 

 gress of a new spirit struggling for light and free- 

 dom, the way of truth was gradually laid open. 

 The centre of Europe, together with the north, 

 which had long submitted with reluctance to Rome, 

 tvas ready to countenance the boldest measures for 

 shaking off the priestly yoke, of which the best and 

 most reflecting men had become impatient. But 

 no one anticipated the quarter whence the first blow 

 would be struck. Frederick III. elector of Saxony, 

 a wise prince, but a zealous Catholic, and a great 

 collectorof relics, only followed the example of other 

 German princes in establishing a university at Wit- 

 tenberg (1502), whither, among other learned men, 

 tie invited Martin Luther, an Augustine monk of 

 Erfurt, to be professor of theology. This man of 

 a powerful mind, and distinguished more for his 

 deep piety, and strong love of truth, than for exten- 

 sive erudition was well acquainted with the Holy 

 Scriptures, and, by a visit to Rome, in 1 5 10 on some 

 Business of his order, had also become acquainted 

 with the corruptions of the papal court. Leo X. 

 was created pope in 1513. Little affected by the 

 iniversal desire, for reformation in the church, he 

 seemed placed at its head merely to employ its re- 

 venues in the gratification of his princely tastes. 

 Albert, elector of Mentz and archbishop of Magde- 

 lurg, a prince of a similar character, received from 

 Leo, in 1516, permission to sell indulgences within 

 lis own jurisdiction, on condition of sharing the pro- 

 fits with the pope. In this traffic, Albert employed, 



