ULTRAMONTANISM ULYSSES. 



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substance, when analyzed, was found to consist of 

 sulphur, sodium, silex, and alumine ; and, by con- 

 bining these principles in the proportions found in 

 the pigment, the artificial ultramarine was formed. 

 The new product is said to possess a colour equally 

 rich with that of the mineral ultramarine ; and it is 

 now so extensively manufactured as to become an 

 object with painters and colourmen, in point of eco- 

 nomy, to substitute it in room of cobalt, in the 

 blueing of paper, thread, and stuff, in which this 

 material has been heretofore employed. The dis- 

 coverer purchased a situation near Lyons, in 

 which he established a manufactory on a large 

 scale, so as to satisfy the demands of commerce. 

 M. Guimet has proved by experiment, that a pound 

 of his ultramarine of the second quality, and which 

 can be afforded at twenty francs, will blue as much 

 paper as ten pounds of cobalt, which, at wholesale, 

 costs twenty-six francs; and an important advan- 

 tage of the former is, that on account of its lightness, 

 it spreads more uniformly over paper. Since his 

 success in this application of the new colour, he has 

 tried it in dyeing, and has obtained upon linen, cot- 

 ton, and silk, a degree of success which encourages 

 the hope of an ultimate and decided superiority over 

 indigo. M. Guimet sold his ultramarine at sixteen 

 francs the pound. 



ULTRAMONTANISM (from ultra monies, the 

 other side of the mountains, i. e. Alps). As the 

 nations north of the Alps France, Germany, &c. 

 have been most opposed to the papal assumption 

 or absolute power, they have termed the endeavours 

 of the Roman curia to extend the papal authority 

 and destroy the consequence of the national 

 churches, such as the Gallican church, ultramontan- 

 ism. The name has been particularly used of late 

 years, since the attempts of the Roman court, dur- 

 ing the reign of the elder line of Bourbons in 

 France, to arrogate powers wholly inconsistent 

 with the present state of civilization. We have 

 spoken of the influence of the pope in the mid- 

 dle ages, in the article Pope; have given, we 

 believe, deserved praise to that great man, Gre- 

 gory VII., and have not denied the good which 

 even the Jesuits have done ; but the times have 

 changed, and that influence, which, centuries ago, 

 was a benefit to nations during the prevalence of 

 general disorder, would be in the highest degree 

 detrimental at the present day. Modern history is 

 made up, in a great measure, of the struggles of 

 the nations to disenthral themselves from the con- 

 trol of the Roman see ; and we may be allowed to 

 observe, that one of the circumstances which have 

 essentially contributed to the developement of free 

 institutions and the general advancement of civil 

 government in England, has been the absence of 

 foreign nuncios in that country, since the twelfth 

 century, when the archbishop of Canterbury was 

 declared the permanent legate of the pope. She 

 has thus escaped the violent struggles against the 

 papal power, which have convulsed the govern- 

 ments and nations of Germany and France. In 

 the latter part of the last century, the political in- 

 fluence of the pope declined rapidly, and continued 

 so to do, until, under Napoleon, it ceased entirely. 

 But, after the return of the Bourbons, ultramon- 

 tane principles were more and more boldly pro- 

 claimed in France, and, though sometimes opposed, 

 were, on the whole, favoured by the government. 

 This alone would have been sufficient to place the 

 Bourbons in decided opposition to the nation, and, 

 iooncr or later, bring on their ruin. A man may 



be a good Catholic, and yet wholly opposed to ul- 

 tramontane principles; as, for example, most, per- 

 haps all, the German Catholics distinguished for 

 learning and talent are so. Those who explain the 

 canon law on ultramontane principles, are called 

 curialists. (See Curia.') Ultramontanism may be 

 briefly described as the endeavour to render the 

 Catholic churches of the various countries more 

 subservient to the pope than is compatible with the 

 existing ecclesiastical laws of the various countries, 

 with the rights of the bishops and sovereigns, with 

 the independence and intellectual freedom of each 

 country, and with various elements of Catholicism 

 itself. Its principles are decidedly in the spirit ot' 

 Gregory VII., who wished the pope to be bishop 

 every where, and to leave to the various bishops 

 only such rights and privileges as he had not re- 

 served for himself. General councils were not to 

 meet nor sit without his permission, and national 

 governments, of course, to have no influence upon 

 national churches, farther than the Roman see 

 should think tit. We do not know whether we 

 should treat the infallibility of the pope as a prin- 

 ciple of ultramontanism, since it is a theory almost 

 entirely exploded among German and French Catho- 

 lics, even such as in other respects might be call- 

 ed ultramontane. Among the books that have been 

 written on this subject, are count Montlosier's work 

 against the sovereignty of priests Memoire a con- 

 suiter sur un Systeme religieux et politique, tendunt 

 a renverser la Religion, la Socilte et le Trone (Paris, 

 1826). The three most eloquent defenders of ul- 

 tramontanism, before the revolution of 1830, were 

 count de Maistre, M. de Boriald, and especially the 

 abbe de la Mennais, whose work De la Religion 

 consideree dans ses Rapports uvec I'Ordre politique 

 et civil, defends the supremacy of ecclesiastical 

 power over the secular in all states, declares all 

 Protestants, and even the Jansenists, atheists, and 

 affixes the same stigma to the government, because 

 the charts of France allows freedom of religious 

 worship, &c. The work was seized, and the 

 author brought before the tribunals; but sixteen 

 French bishops and archbishops, among whom were 

 two cardinals, expressed, in decided terms, their 

 hostility to this kind of ultramontanism, in an in- 

 strument dated Paris, April 3, 1826, and put into 

 the hands of the king, April 10. Hyacinth, arch- 

 bishop of Paris, M. de Quelen, and the cardinal de 

 Clermont-Tonne're, archbishop of Toulouse, wrote 

 letters in approbation of this step. The ultramon- 

 tane periodical, the Giornale Ecclesiastico di Roma 

 (which has now ceased altogether), was prohibited 

 to be circulated in France. 



ULYSSES (in Greek, Odysseus'); a king of the 

 islands of Ithaca and Dulichium, son of Anticlea, 

 and Laertes. He became one of the suitors of 

 Helen ; but, as he despaired of success, he solicited 

 the hand of Penelope, the daughter of Icarius. The 

 rape of Helen did not long permit him to remain in 

 Ithaca, and he was summoned to the Trojan war 

 with the other princes of Greece. He pretended in- 

 sanity, to avoid leaving Penelope ; but Palamedes, 

 by placing before the plough of Ulysses his son 

 Telemachus, convinced the world that the father 

 was not mad, who had the providence to turn away 

 the plough from the furrow, not to hurt his child. 

 Ulysses was therefore obliged to go to the war, 

 where he distinguished himself by his sagacity. 

 By his means, Achilles was discovered among the 

 daughters of Lycomedes, and Philoctetes was in- 

 duced to abandon Lemnos. He was not less dis- 



