UNITED STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA UNIVERSITIES. 



755 



Climate, 734 



Productions, 



2. Political Divisions and Population, . 737 



3. Commerce, Manufactures, Agriculture, and 



Mechanic Arts, .... 739 



4. Constitution, Administration, Finances, 741 



5. Education, .... 743 



6. Condition of the People, . . 745 



LITERATURE, 



1. Newspapers, 



2. Periodical Publications, 



3. Publications of Learned Societies, 



4. Theological Writings, 



5. Law, 



6. Medicine, .... 



7. Theatre, 



8. Romantic Fiction, . 



9. Arts and Sciences, 



10. Poetry, .... 



11. History and Biography, 



12. Miscellaneous, 



747 



ib. 



ib. 

 748 

 749 

 750 

 751 



ib. 

 752 

 753 



ib. 

 754 



UNITED STATES OF CENTRAL AMERI- 

 CA. See Central America. 



UNITY of a work is the correspondence of its 

 parts in one harmonious whole. It is indispensable 

 in every work of art. For the unities in the drama, 

 see Drama. 



UNIVERSALISTS; those Christians who be- 

 lieve in the final salvation of all men, in opposition 

 to the doctrine of eternal punishment. There is, 

 however, a great difference of opinion, in regard to 

 the future state, among those who are called Uni- 

 versalists : some believe in a remedial punishment 

 of limited duration, which will end in a universal 

 restoration to goodness and happiness ; others be- 

 lieve that all men will be happy after the dissolu- 

 tion of the body, but in different degrees, until the 

 resurrection ; and yet others hold that the future 

 state of all will be alike perfect and happy imme- 

 diately after death. (See Sects.) Universalists is 

 also an appellation given to those who teach, in 

 opposition to the doctrine of absolute predestina- 

 tion, that Christ died for all, and not for an elect 

 number, and that all men, therefore, may partake 

 of salvation through belief in Jesus Christ. They 

 are also called hypothetical Universalists, because 

 they represent faith in Christ as a necessary condi- 

 tion of salvation. 



UNIVERSALS; the name given by the school- 

 men to general notions, especially those of genera 

 and species. It was a long-agitated question, whe- 

 ther general notions correspond to any real exist- 

 ences out of ourselves, or are derived merely from 

 our conceptions ; whether such existences are of a 

 corporeal nature or not ; and, in the latter case, 

 whether they are separate from individual exist- 

 ences, or only within them. On these points, a 

 dispute was long maintained between the nomina- 

 lists and realists. See Nominalist. 



UNIVERSE, SYSTEM OF. See Syftem of the 

 Universe. 



UNIVERSITIES ; establishments for instruc- 

 tion, in which all the most important branches o: 

 science are taught, and which have, at the same 

 time, the right to confer honorary distinctions on 

 scientific merit. They differ from academies, which 

 are societies of scholars for some common scientific 

 purpose, without the connexion of teacher am 

 learner, and without any distribution of dignities 

 The epithet academical, however, is often applie 

 to both kinds of institutions. The Latin name 

 universitas originated in the beginning of the thir 

 teenth century, and signified, originally, the bod; 

 of students; at a later period, the body of teacher 

 and students assembled in one place. At a stil 

 later period, the expression universitas literarw 



was used to indicate that all the most important 

 branches of science were to be taught in these 

 establishments. With the ancients, the superior 

 institutions for instruction were called scholee, or 

 studio. This latter appellation remained longest in 

 taly ; and we find, in old authors, the expressions 

 tudium Patavinum, Bononiense (university of Padua 

 .nd Bologna). The time of the origin of the first 

 universities in Europe cannot be precisely ascer- 

 ained. Previous to the age of Charlemagne, 

 urope had sunk into the greatest barbarism, in 

 consequence of the migrations of the northern and 

 eastern tribes, and the incessant and devastating 

 wars which attended them. Charlemagne deserves 

 ihe praise of having zealously striven to promote 

 ,he cultivation of science throughout his vast 

 lominions, with the aid of the Englishman Alcuin. 

 ?y his command, schools were established in every 

 Convent and cathedral, intended chiefly for the edu- 

 cation of clergymen ; but young men of high fami- 

 ies, not destined for religious orders, also received 

 nstruction in them These convent and cathedral 

 schools were, for a long time, the highest institu- 

 ions for education in the countries where they were 

 established. From them proceeded men like Adam 

 of Bremen, Lambert of Aschaffenburg, &c. By 

 degrees, the light of science, which had been so 

 ong obscured, began to shine more brightly ; teach- 

 ers arose in various places ; an ardent thirst for 

 knowledge collected numerous scholars around 

 them, and a new kind of schools arose, the heads 

 of which called themselves rectores. In Paris, 

 several such teachers appeared in the twelfth cen- 

 :ury, who gave instruction chiefly in rhetoric, phi- 

 losophy and theology. They were not all of the 

 clerical order : even the celebrated Abelard, when 

 he opened his school, was not yet a clergyman. 

 The advantages and the pleasures connected with a 

 city like Paris, as well as the great reputation 

 which these teachers acquired, drew a vast number 

 of young men to that city ; and thus the first Euro- 

 pean university grew up there. It was not founded 

 by any monarch, nor endowed with any privileges. 

 Teachers and scholars were entirely independent, 

 and could change their residence at pleasure. They 

 regulated their conduct by a constitution of tfyeir 

 own making, which seems to have been tacitly ac- 

 quiesced in by the government. Towards the end 

 of the twelfth century, king Philip Augustus granted 

 them immunity from the jurisdiction of the royal 

 courts. Teachers and students formed themselves 

 into corporations. Originally, each school had its 

 own rector; but now, in 1206, a common rector 

 was chosen : thus the whole mass of students and 

 teachers came to constitute one body, called, on 

 that account, universitas. The continually increas- 

 ing number of teachers and students, however, 

 made several ordinances of the government neces- 

 sary for the maintenance of good order. A public 

 insult offered, in 1229, to the students of Paris, 

 and for which they could not obtain the required 

 satisfaction from the court, made them so indig- 

 nant, that a great part of them removed, with their 

 teachers, from Paris. Their departure seems to 

 have been severely felt, and the court strove to 

 bring them back : by the mediation of pope Gregory 

 IX., a reconciliation was effected ; and the privi- 

 leges of the university, which had been, so far, only 

 acquiesced in, were increased and confirmed. About 

 the time when the schools of Paris were established, 

 perhaps even somewhat earlier, the first teachers 

 of medicine appeared at Salerno, in Naples, and 

 a i! -2 



