UNIVERSITIES. 



757 



nations. The Germans, therefore (as the Polish 

 natron consisted chiefly of German Silesians,) had 

 the advantage over the Bohemians ; and, as these 

 were unwilling to suffer their oppressions, John 

 Huss and Jerome of Prague induced the emperor 

 Wenceslaus to make three nations of the Bohemian 

 and one of the two German. Several thousand 

 students and teachers withdrew immediately, and 

 gave rise to the university of Leipsic, in 1409, 

 where they were divided into four nations, the 

 Misnian, Saxon, Bavarian and Polish. None of 

 the other German universities, founded in the fif- 

 teenth century, adopted the division into nations. 

 Universities were now expressly established, and 

 not left to grow up of themselves, as before. For 

 almost three centuries, the popes continued to erect 

 these institutions, and exercised the right of pro- 

 tecting and of superintending them. Monarchs 

 who wished to establish a university, requested the 

 papal confirmation (which never was denied), and 

 submitted to the authority which the Roman see 

 arrogated over them. Wittenberg was the first 

 German university which received its confirmation 

 (in 1502), not from the pope, but from the German 

 emperor : but even this institution eventually re- 

 quested the papal confirmation. Marburg was estab- 

 lished in 1525, without papal or imperial confirma- 

 tion : the latter, however, was subsequently given. 

 Even Gottingen, founded in 1734, obtained "impe- 

 rial privileges, after the model of those of Halle. 

 The unhappy thirty years' war did much injury to 

 the German universities ; but, since that period, 

 they have advanced beyond those of any other coun- 

 try ; and it may be said that the principal part of 

 the liberty left to the Germans has been academi- 

 cal liberty ; hence, also their abuse of it ; hence, 

 too.the fondness with which a German recalls his life 

 at the university ; and hence the students' jealousy 

 of their privileges. Though the organization of the 

 German Protestant Universities is, in general, much 

 superior to that of any others, we do not think it de- 

 sirable to place students in precisely the same rela- 

 tion ^in other countries, particularly those in which 

 men's energies are not cramped by arbitrary politi- 

 cal institutions. Germany has more universities 

 than any other country. After the burscc had been 

 established, they degenerated in a great degree. 

 Some bursce were not charitable institutions, and 

 the students had to pay a fee to the person whose 

 duty it was to superintend their conduct. These 

 superintendents often allowed their wards to in- 

 dulge in all kinds of vices, in order to obtain many 

 students. The reformation broke out and its rege- 

 nerating power was felt in the scientific institutions. 

 The students saw the corruption of the bursa, and 

 elected their own superintendents, to each of whom 

 was committed the charge of the students coming 

 from a particular district or part of Germany : thus 

 the Landsmannschaften (countrymanships) origin- 

 ated. These, also, soon degenerated. All the ! 

 students divided themselves into Schorists (precep- ' 

 tores) and Pennale (pen-cases). (See Pennalism.} 

 The latter were abused by the former, and when 

 they succeeded to their places, abused those who 

 came after them. (See Schottgen's History ofPen- 

 nalism, 1747). This lasted almost 100 years. In 

 the beginning of the eighteenth century originated 

 the orders. The chiefs of the orders were called j 

 seniors. They made their own constitutions, called 

 comments. The orders generally comprised but few ! 

 members, and in their turn, degenerated, owing ' 

 partly to the spirit of the time, and partly to the ; 



circumstance that the students had a particular aca- 

 demical jurisdiction. New Landsmannschaften were 

 created to oppose them, which were chiefly founded 

 on very misconceived notions of honour. The 

 abuses to which these institutions led, continued 

 until 1813, when the feeling that Germany ought to 

 be united, inspired all classes with a common senti- 

 ment of patriotism ; and, after those individuals who 

 had fought and bled for their common country re- 

 turned to the universities, they felt the petty cha- 

 racter of the Landsmannschaften, and the JBursch- 

 enschaften were established unions of all the stu- 

 dents of a university, without regard to the parti- 

 cular German territory from which they came. 

 Better morals and notions of honour became preva- 

 lent ; but, as the liberal principles, which animated 

 all Germany, were manifested in a particular degree 

 by the young men at the universities, the German 

 governments became suspicious, and abolished the 

 Burschenschaften* 



In order to give an idea of the character of the 

 English universities, we have extracted the follow- 

 ing observations from an account of Oxford univer- 

 sity, in the English Quarterly Journal of Education, 

 No. III., for July, 1831. Oxford is an establish- 

 ment for the purposes of education, which corres- 

 ponds to a federal body united for political purposes. 

 As, in this latter case, the several states have sepa- 

 rate jurisdictions, separate duties, and, to a certain 

 extent, separate interests, so the several colleges 

 and halls which compose the academical body, have 

 each its own private regulations for the education 

 of its members, but all contribute to the university 

 education. This may be brought under the heads 

 of public examinations and college preparation. In 

 its early constitution, and in the gradual additions 

 which for many ages were made to it, the system 

 now followed in the German universities was-kept 

 in view, and professorships or readerships in the 

 different arts and sciences were established ; but 



* The general organization of a German university is as fol- 

 lows : A number of professoret ordinarii sue appointed for the 

 various branches. They divide themselves into torn faculties. 

 each having a dean annually chosen by themselves from among 

 their number. All these professors generally form the senate 

 at the head of which is the rector, who is chosen annually. 

 They have jurisdiction over the students, in regard to small of- 

 fences and matters of police, and make the general provisions 

 respecting instruction, with the consent of the government. 

 Professors in most universities are appointed by the govern- 

 ment. Besides these professors, there are an indefinite number 

 of prnfessores extraordinarif, for the same branches, or for par- 

 ticular parts of them. They receive small salaries, and are tho 

 persons to whom the government look to fill vacancies. They 

 are generally persons who have distinguished themselves, and 

 whose talents the government wish to secure. In Berlin tlicre 

 are a great many of these extraordinary professors. The last 

 class of lecturers are the docentet, or licentiates, who. after un- 

 dergoing an examination, have obtained permission to teach 

 (licentia dncendi). They receive no salary. Any person can 

 request to be examined by the faculty in tliis way, and thus ca- 

 pacitate himself to teach. From them the profemores eitraor- 

 dinarii are ordinarily taken. Every person in these threo 

 classes can lecture upon whatever subject ho may choose, the 

 professors being only obliged to deliver lectures also on the 

 branches for which they are particularly appointed. Thus we 

 constantly find theologians lecture on p'olitics, philosophers on 

 theological subjects and statistics; theologians on philology, 

 &c. Very often three or four courses are delivered on the 

 same subject. The German student, in the Protestant univer- 

 sities, is left at full liberty to choose the lectures which he will 

 attend. No official examination takes place during his term of 

 study. The only regulation is that, in tne case of most sciences 

 he is required to attend certain lectures, and study full three 

 years, if he wishes to obtain an appointment, practise a profes- 

 sion, &c., if he is not specially exempted from so doing. If he 

 wishes to practise medicine, he must study in 1'russia four 

 years. The German student usually divides his term of study 

 among two or more universities ; but whilst he is thus loft al- 

 most at full liberty while at the universities, he must go through 

 a severe examination, particularly in Prussia, if he wishes to 

 become a clergyman, statesman, practise as physician, lawyer, 

 or teacher in a superior school. 1 hese examinations are both 

 oral and in writing, and the successive st''ps of promotion are 

 attended with new examinations. 



