REFRIGERATING AND ICE MAKING. 



RESERVATIONS, INDIAN. 



867 



fore to place tanks of brine in contact with the 

 evaporating coils, and to circulate the brine by 

 means of a pump throughout the premises to be 

 cooled. This system has the advantages of requir- 

 ing less ammonia and of affording no chance for ac- 

 cidental leakage of the ammonia in the cold rooms, 

 such leakage being liable to inflict severe damage 

 on goods. In a general distribution system, as in 

 Denver, the direct-expansion method is employed. 

 A large compressor pump and steam engine, usually 

 combined in one machine, are employed at the cen- 

 tral plant to compress the ammonia. An ammonia 

 condenser with liquefying coils is also provided, be- 

 sides minor machinery. Three sets of pipes are 

 laid through the streets, known respectively as the 

 liquid line, vapor line, and vacuum line. The lique- 

 fied and cooled ammonia is sent out in the vapor 

 line and connected with the expansion coils that 

 are placed on the premises of customers, en- 

 abling them to turn on the cold by a simple twirl 

 of a valve. After the ammonia in the various 

 coils has fully evaporated and expanded, doing all 

 the cooling work of which it is capable, it is led 

 back to the vapor line, and assisted back to the 

 central plant by means of a suction pump. The 

 vacuum line is connected at regular intervals with 

 both the other lines by means of valves that are nor- 

 mally closed, but which render it possible, in case 

 of accidents or difficulty in either of the other lines, 

 to alter the valves so as to cause one line to flow 

 through a portion of the vacuum line, permitting 

 the corresponding section of the defective line to be 

 emptied and examined fur repairs. The vacuum 

 line, as its name implies, is ordinarily pumped so 

 as to be comparatively empty, and thus a section of 

 either of the other lines is readily turned into the 

 vacuum line, the suction being so complete that not 

 even fumes are left in the vacated section of the 

 emptied line to annoy the workmen who make the 

 repairs. Pipes for these lines are laid with extreme 

 care, in order to avoid disturbance by frost, etc., re- 

 sulting in distortion of the joints and consequent 

 leakage. The customary plan is to provide a com- 

 plete bed of cement and to cut the pipe in longi- 

 tudinal half sections, so that the lower halves may 

 be laid first, and the joints thoroughly protected 

 against leaks. The upper halves are then attached 

 with cement joints, and the whole completely sur- 

 rounded with cement. At the completion of each 

 section, where the shut-off and transfer valves are 

 ! placed, are manholes to facilitate their operation. 

 I By such means as these the loss from leakage is re- 

 ; ducedtoa minimum, whichis quite important, as the 

 leakage, besides being a direct loss, is seriously pb- 

 ! jectionabie to property owners on whose premises 

 I it occurs or to the general public in the vicinity 

 i where the loss takes place. It will be apparent that 

 I this system obviates any loss of heat by transfer 

 I through the line, as the liquefied. ammonia sent out 

 | does not begin to withdraw heat from its surround- 

 I ings until it is afforded a chance for expansion, 

 which is not given until it is actually in the coils of 

 the customer. 



For making ice by the ammonia system, distillers, 

 purifiers, and filters are employed to cleanse the 

 water, which is let into cans of' 100 to 300 pounds 

 capacity. With one of the larger outfits it is pos- 

 sible to make 150 tons of ice every twenty-four 

 hours after ice making begins. Sometimes the ice 

 is made in plate form, being cast in tanks that 

 yield a cake about 8 by 16 feet and 12 to 16 inches 

 thick. Artificial ice thus made is produced so 

 cheaply and conveniently, and has such an advan- 

 tage in the way of purity, that it has gained a market 

 in many cities within the ice-gathering belt, and 

 ice making and refrigerating machinery is every 

 year being introduced a little farther north. 



RESERVATIONS, INDIAN. The area of land 



thai is reserved from the national domain for oc- 

 cupation by Indian tribes aggregates 84.071.469 

 acres, or 132,148 square miles almost equal to t he 

 area of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois combined. The 

 reservations which are in California, Colorado, 

 Idaho, Kansas, Michigan, Minm-sola. Montana 

 braska, Nevada, New York, North Carolina. North 

 Dakota. Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington. 

 Wisconsin, and Wyoming, and Arizona, New Mexi- 

 co, Indian, and Oklahoma Territories number 13H. 

 the 22 small reserves of the Mission Indians in 

 California and the 19 Pueblo reserves in New 

 Mexico being counted as one each. Of these reser- 

 vations no two are exactly similar, and no two 

 tribes present the same condition. Some of t he- 

 Indians live a mere animal life, while others are 

 largely civilized and have become absorbed into 

 our national life. The great majority receive nothing 

 directly from the Government in the way of sub- 

 sistence or support, while certain tribes as the 

 Sioux, Cheyennes, Arapahoes, and Apaches de- 

 pend largely upon Government rations. Tin- 

 established policy of the Government toward the 

 Indians now aims at the destruction of the reser- 

 vation system, together with that of tribal organi- 

 zation, the allotment of land in several ty to tin- 

 Indians as they shall become sufficiently enlight- 

 ened to accept it, and their incorporation into the 

 nation as citizens. The initiation of this policy 

 was the act of March 3, 1871, forbidding the future 

 recognition of Indian tribes or nations as independ- 

 ent powers, with which treaties might be entered 

 into, substituting agreements merely, subject to 

 ratification by Congress. It was radically fixed, 

 however, by the act of Feb. 8, 1887, known as the 

 Dawes bill, or " land-in-severalty law," applicable 

 to all reservations except those of the .Five Civilized 

 Tribes, and three others in Indian Territory, those 

 in the State of New York, and one in Nebraska. 

 Prior to the passage of this act allotment of laml in 

 severally was stipulated for in treaties with certain 

 Indian tribes, and, by acts of Congress, allotments 

 have been made to specified tribes since 1885. By 

 this act the President is authorized to have t In- 

 lands of Indian reservations surveyed and allotted 

 in severally, and in 1890 the amount was fixed at 

 80 acres to each Indian, without regard to sex or 

 age. Patents to the individual holdings contain a 

 restriction against alienation for -twenty-five or 

 more years; and the Indian receiving land in fee is 

 declared an American citizen, and is brought under 

 the laws of the State or Territory in which he re- 

 sides. Surplus lands remaining after allotment 

 will be purchased by the United States and opened 

 to settlement. In special instances this is done in 

 advance. While many of the tribes and fragments 

 of tribes on reservations are in a condition to ac- 

 cept lands in several ty, to othe'rs the application of 

 the law would be preposterous. 



The policy of seclusion having thus been aban- 

 doned, the landed estate of the Indians has suffered 

 somewhat rapid reduction. In 1890, after the open- 

 ing of Oklahoma, it aggregated 116.000.000 acres. 

 or 181.250 square miles. But during that year 

 about 13.000,000 acres were ceded to the United 

 States 9,000 000 by the Sioux in North and South 

 Dakota and 4.000.000 by the Chippewas in Minne- 

 sota. In 1891 agreements with the Indians, ratified 

 bv acts of Congress, restored 8,164,7(55 acres to the 

 public domain, and in September. IS!): 1 ,, the Chero- 

 kee Outlet, or " Strip," of 6.:{il.i:?5 acres, was opened 

 to settlement under the homestead laws and to dis- 

 position as school lands. 



The first effect of the general allotment act of 

 Feb. 8, 1887, was the immediate admission to full 

 citizenship of 10,122 Indians to whom allotments 



