146 CHARITIES OF THE U. S. 



CHEMISTRY. (CHEMICAL THEORY.) 



6,467. The colored pauper element, relative to 

 the total colored population, neither increased 

 nor decreased between 1880 and 1890. The white 

 element of the pauper population tended to de- 

 crease to such extent that, divided as native and 

 foreign, male and female, the whole pauper popu- 

 lation showed a decrease in ratios. 



The principal cause assigned for pauperism is 

 the want of any other home, this cause being 

 given in 72,722 cases (40,503 male and 32,159 fe- 

 male). The next most common cause is age and 

 infirmity, 20,121 (11,799 male and 8,322 female). 

 Cripples come next, 10,373 (7,181 male and 3,192 

 female). 



The foregoing deals exclusively with pauperism, 

 but much interesting information is given in the 

 eleventh census reports under the heading of 

 " benevolent institutions." It is stated that on 

 June 1. 1890, there were in the benevolent insti- 

 tutions of the United States 111,910 beneficiaries, 

 including 55,245 males and 56,605 females. 



An interesting showing is made concerning na- 

 tionality of foreign-born whites. The total num- 

 ber of foreign-born inmates of benevolent insti- 

 tutions in the United States at the time of tak- 

 ing the eleventh census was 26,322. Of these, the 

 nations most largely represented were Ireland, 

 11,148; Germany, 5,704; England, 2,424; Canada 

 and Newfoundland, 1,211; Italy, 941. 



The Annual Cyclopaedia is indebted to Mr. 

 Hastings H. Hart, general secretary of the Na- 

 tional Conference of Charities and Correction, for 

 courtesy in furnishing early printed copies of the 

 conference report. Thanks are due also to the 

 following conference State and Territorial corre- 

 spondents for 1899, from whose reports excerpts 

 have been made for this article: Alabama, Julia 

 S. Tut \viler; Alaska, Sheldon Jackson; Cali- 

 fornia, Mrs. Agnes W. Flint; Colorado, Minnie 

 C. T. Love, M.D.; Connecticut, Charles F. Kel- 

 logg; Delaware, Emalea P. Warner; District of 

 Columbia, Henry B. F. Macfarland; Florida, L. B. 

 Wombwell; Idaho, F. B. Gault; Illinois, Ephraim 

 Banning (F. C. Dodds, 1898); Indiana, Amos W. 

 Butler; Iowa, W. S. R. Burnett; Indian Territory, 

 Edwin H. Rishel; Kentucky, Miss Emma A. Gal- 

 lagher; Louisiana, Michel Heymann; Maine, Mrs. 

 L. M. N. Stevens; Maryland, Kate McLane; 

 Massachusetts, John D. Wells; Michigan, L. C. 

 Storrs; Minnesota, James F. Jackson; Missouri, 

 Miss Mary E. Perry; Montana, Mrs. Laura E. 

 Howey; Nebraska, A. W. Clark; New Hamp- 

 shire, Mrs. Melusina H. Varick; New Jersey, 

 Hugh F. Fox; New Mexico, Rev. Mary J. Borden; 

 New York, Homer Folks; North Carolina, C. B. 

 Denson; North Dakota, T. N. Poole (W. J. Sis- 

 bison, 1898); Ohio, Joseph B. Byers; Oklahoma, 

 Frederick L. Wenner; Oregon, W. R. Walpole; 

 Pennsylvania, James W. W T alk, M. D.; Rhode 

 Island, Henry B. Gardner; South Carolina, Mrs 

 M. A. Rhett; South Dakota, W. B. Sherrard; 

 Texas, Rev, Robert C. Buckner, D. D.; Utah, Miss 

 Grace M. Paddock: Vermont, Rev. J. Edward 

 Wright; Virginia. Dr. William F. Drewry; Wash- 

 ington, Thomas P. Westendorf; West Virginia, 

 Thomas C. Miller; Wisconsin, James E. Heg. 



Among the books consulted were: Bulletin of 

 the Department of Labor, No. 24, September, 

 1809, -edited by Carroll D. Wright, commissioner, 

 and Oren W. Weaver, chief clerk; Eleventh Cen- 

 sus Report on Crime, Pauperism, and Benevolence, 

 edited by Frederick H. Wines, special agent; 

 American Charities, by Amos G. Warner; Chari- 

 ties Review, 1899; and Hospitals and Charities, 

 1899, by Sir Henry Burdett, K. C. B. 



From the Bulletin of the Department of Labor 

 many important facts and figures were obtained 



concerning municipal charitable institutions in 

 140 cities. The Eleventh Census Report referred 

 to is probably the most elaborate as well as the 

 most complete ever published. From Sir Henry 

 Burdett's w r ork much valuable matter was ob- 

 tained concerning the most important general 

 hospitals in this country. 



CHEMISTRY. Chemical Theory. An ex- 

 planation of the nature of valence, based upon 

 the harmony of atomic motions, has been at- 

 tempted by Prof. E. P. Venable. The extension 

 of the atomic theory, he says, " teaches that 

 the atoms are endowed with motion, and this 

 motion probably varies in velocity and phases 

 with the different elements. So, too, when the 

 atoms unite the resulting molecule has a cer- 

 tain motion peculiar to it, while the atoms com- 

 posing it have an intramolecular motion, in 

 which their original motions are probably modi- 

 fied by their influence on one another. It is 

 quite manifest, then, that a molecule in order to 

 exist must maintain a certain equilibrium and 

 harmony between these various motions, and that 

 there can be all degrees of equilibrium from the 

 very stable to that which may be upset by the 

 least disturbing influence from the other. It 

 seems to me that herein we have a full and satis- 

 factory means of explaining the various problems 

 connected with the conception of valence. The 

 question as to whether the atoms of two ele- 

 ments will unite is decided by affinity, which 

 is in some way connected with the electrical 

 condition of these atoms. There is no apparent 

 connection between this and valence. The num- 

 ber of atoms which enter into combination form- 

 ing one molecule is purely a matter of equilibri- 

 um, and is dependent upon the nature of those 

 atoms. Thus a phosphorus atom unites with 

 chlorine atoms because of a certain affinity be- 

 tween them. The number of chlorine atoms with 

 which it will unite depends upon the possibility 

 of harmonizing the respective motions. As the 

 temperature may affect these motions, and also 

 impart a more rapid molecular motion, it is 

 evident that the harmony or equilibrium will de- 

 pend upon the temperature, and that a tempera- 

 ture may be reached at which no harmony is 

 possible, and hence no compound can be formed. 

 The phosphorus atom mentioned can, as we know, 

 form a stable molecule with five atoms of chlo- 

 rine. On increasing the temperature this becomes 

 unstable, and only three atoms can be retained. 

 Neither with four atoms nor with two is there 

 harmony of motion. A sufficiently high tem- 

 perature may prevent any harmony of motion 

 whatever being attained, and hence union may 

 become impossible. As to other influences than 

 those of temperature, we can see that the equi- 

 librium between the atom of phosphorus and the 

 five atoms of chlorine may be upset by such a 

 molecule coming within the influence, electrical 

 or vibratory, of a molecule of water. The atoms 

 must rearrange themselves for a new state of 

 equilibrium, and so an atom of oxygen takes 

 the place of two atoms of chlorine, giving again 

 a condition of harmony. In other cases the mo- 

 tion of the molecule of water may be of such a 

 character as to harmonize directly with that of 

 the original molecule, and so to enter into equi- 

 librium with it, a definite number of such mole- 

 cules of water affording a condition of maximum 

 stability. This we call water of crystallization. 

 Such molecules would be more or less easily 

 separated by an increase of temperature, and, 

 w r here several molecules of water were attached, 

 the highest temperature would be necessary for 

 freeing the original molecule from the last water 



