818 



TURKEY. 



bonds in 1894, and one of 5,000,000 contracted 

 in 1877 and converted into 4-per-cents. in. 1891, 

 are all secured on the Egyptian tribute. One of 

 7.427,260, raised in 1878 to pay advances of 

 Galata bankers, was made a first charge on in- 

 direct contributions conceded to the bondholders. 

 A compromise was made with the creditors in 

 1881, and all loans except these and the loan of 

 5,000,000 raised in 1855 and guaranteed by 

 France and Great Britain, were consolidated into 

 four series, for the payment of the interest and 

 sinking fund of which the excise duties, the Bul- 

 garian, Eastern Roumelian, and Cyprus tributes 

 and the tax on Persian tobacco were handed over 

 to an international council of administration, 

 which was to devote 20 per cent, of the collec- 

 tions to the sinking fund and 80 per cent, to 

 interest, paying over to the Government any sur- 

 plus if the maximum interest of 4 per cent, should 

 be reached. The interest paid has in fact not 

 been over 1 per cent. The debts contracted sub- 

 sequently have been placed in charge of the Coun- 

 cil of Administration, with the exception of the 

 5-per-cent. loan of 5,900,080 raised in 1880 and 

 o-uaranteed by the customs and the 4-per-cent. 

 Tumbeki loan of 900.000 raised in 1894. The 

 outstanding bonds of the series A, B, C, and D 

 amounted on July 1, 1898, to 78,303.942 sterling, 

 various loans contracted between 1888 and 1894 

 to 28,304,020, lottery bonds to 13,045,084, the 

 5-per-cent. customs loan of 1880 to 4.892,471, 

 the Tumbeki loan to 859,000, and the 5-per-cent. 

 loan of 1896 to 2.945,200; total, 128.350.917. 

 Besides this bonded debt, the Turkish Government 

 owed T. 24,513,000 of war indemnity to Rus- 

 sia, T. 50,000 to Russian subjects, and T. 273,- 

 494 to the Damascus Railroad Company; total, 

 T. 31,551.958. A loan raised in 1855. of which 

 T. 4,196,720 were outstanding, the 4-per-cent. 

 defense loan of 1891, amounting to T. 6.737,412, 

 and the 3^-per-cent. loan of 1894, amounting to 

 T. 8,896,294, were guaranteed on the Egyptian 

 tribute. Arrangements were made in 1899 for 

 the conversion of the 4-per-cent. loan of 1855, the 

 customs loan of 1880, and the fisheries loan of 

 1888. The revenues of the vilayets of Konia, 

 Sivas, Angora, Castamouni, and Adana are 

 pledged for the payment of the Russian annuity 

 of T. 350,000. 



The Army and Navy. Every Turkish sub- 

 ject capable of bearing arms owes three years 

 of service in the active army. If assigned to the 

 cavalry or artillery, he serves four years. Any 

 conscript, however, at the end of five months can 

 purchase his discharge by paying 30 Turkish 

 pounds. After serving their time in the perma- 

 nent army, infantrymen are attached to the re-' 

 serve for three, cavalry and artillery soldiers for 

 two years. For the next eight years they are 

 liable to be called out with the Redifs or 'terri- 

 torial army, and for the following six years in 

 the Mustahfiz or territorial army reserve. The 

 Nizams, or regular troops, are armed with Mauser 

 rifles of 7.65 millimetres, with five cartridges in 

 the magazine, or of 9.5 millimetres, with 9 car- 

 tridges. The nominal strength of the permanent 

 army in 1898 was 350,000 men; of the territorial 

 army, 300,000 men ; of the territorial army reserve, 

 250,000 men; total, 900,000 men, 750,000 of whom 

 possess a complete military training. 



The navy in 1898 consisted of 3 armor clads 

 with casemated batteries, having an aggregate 

 tonnage of 20,507, with 37 guns, named respective- 

 ly the Assar i Tewfik, Hamidije, and Messudije; 

 2 turret ships, the Azizije and Osmanije; 2 broad- 

 side ships, 7 corvettes, 1 monitor, 1 ironclad 

 gunboat, 2 river gunboats, 2 torpedo catchers, 



and 15 first-class and 7 second-class torpedo 

 boats. The total tonnage of 42 vessels is 06,947; 

 total motive power, 51,411 horse power; arma- 

 ment, 153 guns. 



Commerce and Production. Only a small 

 fraction of the land in Turkey, a part of the 

 house property in towns and land purchased from 

 the Government by villagers, is freehold. Of 

 greater extent, but still inconsiderable, are the 

 lands granted in former times to the spahis for 

 military services, which are hereditary and ex- 

 empt from tithes. The vacouf lands, granted for 

 religious and charitable uses, although oflicials 

 divert the revenues into their own pockets, have 

 a large aggregate area. The bulk of the la ml. 

 however, belongs in theory to the Government, 

 which collects a fee from every occupier, and 

 has the right to oust him if he neglects to culti- 

 'vate his farm for three years. The lack of roacU 

 or other means of communication, the system of 

 levying tithes on all produce, and the exaction 

 of transit dues at the boundaries of the provinces 

 combine to discourage agriculture, although the 

 soil is generally fertile. About 44,000,000 acres 

 are cultivated and 21.000,000 acres under forests. 

 Cereal crops, tobacco, cotton, figs, olives, almonds, 

 grapes, wine, various nuts and fruits, co!l. 

 madder, opium, silk, and gums are the product- 

 of various parts of the empire. Forest regula- 

 tions copied from those of France have been 

 adopted, but since they are not enforced the 

 country is being stripped, of its forests. The pro- 

 duction of wine is about 1.000.000 hectolitres per 

 annum, of which 1(K),000 hectolitres are exported. 

 The production of cocoons in 1896 was 5,38(1. 119 

 kilogrammes, valued at 58,508,561 piasters. 'I lie 

 opium pro.luct in ls'.>7 \\a-> S.OOO clie-t- .f :.n to 

 60 okes. or 140 to 170 pounds; but in 1898 it fell 

 off to 3,500 chests. The production of oil of roses 

 in 1898 was 2,000 kilogrammes. The mineral re 

 sources of the country include coal, copper, iron. 

 lead, silver, manganese, chrome, bitumen, sul- 

 phur, salt, and alum, but there is very little min- 

 ing. owing partly to the restrictive laws. The 

 fishery products are numerous and valuable. The 

 fish caught in the Bosporus are valued at \~>.- 

 000.000 piasters a year. On the Mediterranean 

 coast sponges of fine quality are obtained, in t he- 

 Rod Sea pearl shells, and in the Persian (Julf 

 pearls. The total value of imports in IVM; \\ ;1 - 

 2,057.567,000 piasters and of exports 1,553.563.000 

 piasters. 



The value in piasters of the commerce with 

 various countries in 1896 is shown in the follow- 

 ing table: 



Navigation. The merchant marine of the 

 Turkish Empire consisted in 1898 of 1.340 sail- 

 ing vessels, of 252,947 tons, and 87 steamer-, of 



