152 ADAPTATION AND PROGRESS 



It is difficult to select representatives from the large and grow- 

 ing number of anthropologists who have contributed to our sub- 

 ject. 1 Spencer devoted much of his sociology to a discussion of 

 primitive man but was led astray by his principle of classification 

 and by reports which have since been corrected. More recent 

 investigations have tended to discredit his teaching concerning 

 the intellectual and emotional equipment and beliefs of primitive 

 man. 2 We will review in this chapter the main theses of Sumner 

 and Boas, the former approaching the subject from the neo- 

 Darwinian point of view, the latter emphasizing the influence 

 of environment and opportunity. We will also touch upon the 

 conclusions of some others, adding suggestions as to the value of 

 the concept of adaptation in anthropological interpretations. 



WILLIAM G. SUMNER (1840-1910) 

 Folkways 



Although Sumner was primarily a sociologist, we have in 

 Folkways a mine of classified information concerning social origins 

 which is invaluable if one would appreciate the place of adapta- 

 tion in the development of folkways and mores among primitive 

 groups. 3 



Sumner's general attitude of laissezfaire is brought out, in his 

 earlier book What Social Classes Owe w Each Other. In this later 

 work we have the neo-Darwinian formula applied to the devejop- 

 ment of folkways and social institutions! The main thesis is that 

 " the mores are always right "; but this is not to be taken abso- 

 lutely. The meaning is that the mores furnish the standard of 

 right for each group at every particular period. 4 Although many 

 rites and ceremonies grew up as a response to what he terms the 

 " aleatory element " or luck, 5 and many were positively injuri- 

 ous, 6 yet on the whole, and in the long run, only those groups 

 survived who built up their folkways and mores on the principle 

 of utility. 



1 See ch. VI, review of W. Z. Ripley. 



* Thomas, Source Book, pp. 143 ff.; Angell, Chapters from Modern Psychology, 

 pp. 247 f.; Keith, op. tit., p. 26. 



3 For distinction, see Folkways, ch. I. 5 Ibid., p. 6. 



* Ibid., pp. 28, 58, 521 ., 532. 6 Ibid., pp. 26 f. 



