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THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 



Convection. "When a liquid is heated 

 from above, the temperature of the mass rises 

 with extreme slowness, because liquids possess 

 but little conducting power for heat; thus water 

 may be boiled on ice, although separated from 

 it by a very thin stratum of water. Hut if the 

 liquid be heated from below, we notice at once 

 that currents of liquid ascend from the bottom 

 to the top of the vessel, and the liquid acquires 

 a uniform temperature. This transport of heat 

 by masses of matter is known as Convection. 

 The layers of a liquid or gas which are nearest 

 to the* source of heat are expanded, and thus 

 become specifically lighter than surrounding 

 portions, consequently they rise; while colder, 

 and consequently heavier, portions descend, are 

 heated in their turn, and then ascend to make 

 way for other colder portions. Thus, however 

 badly a liquid or gas conducts heat, it can rap- 

 idly acquire a uniform temperature by the con- 

 vection of heat; and convection takes place in 

 gases far more readily than in fluids, oecause 

 for equal increments of heat they expand to a 

 greater extent than liquids. 



Cooper Union or Cooper Institute. 

 An institute founded in New York City in 1857, 

 by Peter Cooper. Its object is to provide free 

 schools of art and science, and free reading rooms 

 and library for the working classes. There are 

 lecture courses, a museum, an art gallery, and 

 a library of 31,000 volumes, with a reading room 

 containing current numbers of nearly 500 maga- 

 zines and newspapers. The institute was built 

 at a cost of $630,000 and was endowed by Mr. 

 Cooper with $300,000. It has received addi- 

 tional gifts from time to time from Edward 

 Cooper and Abram S. Hewitt, and in 1899 An- 

 drew Carnegie gave it $300,000 for the founding 

 of a mechanical day art school. 



Correlation of the Physical Forces. 

 The principle that any one of the various forms 

 of physical force may be converted into one or 

 more of the other forms. Thus, heat may 

 mediately or immediately produce electricity, 

 electricity may produce heat, and so of the rest, 

 each merging itself as the force it produces 

 becomes developed; and that the same must 

 hold good of other forces, it being an irresistible 

 inference from observed phenomena that a force 

 cannot originate otherwise than by devolution 

 from pre-existing force or forces. This prin- 

 ciple is also called Transmutation of Energy. 



Cosmogony. A theory of the origin or 

 formation of the universe. Such theories may 

 be comprehended under three classes: (1) The 

 first represents the world as eternal, in form as 

 well as substance. (2) The matter of the world 

 is eternal, but not its form. (3) The matter and 

 form of the universe is ascribed to the direct 

 agency of a spiritual cause; the world had a 

 beginning, and shall have an end. Aristotle 

 appears to have embraced the first theory; but 

 the theory which considers the matter of the 

 universe eternal^but not its form, was the pre- 

 vailing one among the ancients, who, starting 

 from the principle that nothing could be made 

 out of nothing, could not admit the creation of 

 matter, yet did not believe that the world had 

 been always in its present state. The prior 

 state of the world subject to a constant succes- 



sion of uncertain movements which chance 

 afterwards made regular, they called chaos. 

 The Phenieians, Babylonians, and also Kgyp- 

 tians. seem to have adhered to this theory. 

 One form of this theory is the atomic theory, 

 as taught by Leucippus, Epicurus, and Lucre- 

 tius. According to it atoms or indivisible par- 

 ticles existed from eternity, moving at ha/ard, 

 and producing, by their 'constant meeting, a 

 variety of substances. After having given rise 

 to :ui immense variety of combinations they 

 produced the present organization of bodies. 

 The third theory of cosmogony makes (Jd. or 

 some deity, the Creator of the world out of 

 nothing. This is an ancient and widely- 

 spread theory, and is that taught in the book 

 of Genesis. Anaxagoras was the first among 

 the Greeks who taught that God created tin- 

 universe from nothing. The Romans generally 

 adopted this theory, notwithstanding the 

 efforts of Lucretius to establish the doctrine of 

 Epicurus. 



Councils of the Church. General 

 councils, called also oecumenical or universal, 

 are summoned by the Pope of Rome, and are 

 designed to settle questions affecting the I'ni- 

 versal Church. The Roman Catholic Church 

 recognizes twenty-one general councils; the 

 Greek Church, the first seven of these, besides 

 that of Jerusalem; and the Protestant Churches 

 generally admit the full authority of none of 

 them, and reckon as oecumenical only the first 

 six. The following are the most notable of the 

 councils of the Church of Rome : 



A. D. 



50. Of the Apostles at Jerusalem. 



314. Of the Western Bishops at Aries, in France, to 

 suppress the Donatists; three fathers of the 

 English Church went over to attend it. 



325. The first (Ecumenical or General Nicene, held at 

 Nice, Constantine the Great presided; Arius and 

 Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council 

 composed the Nicene Creed. 



335. At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athanasius was 

 canvassed. 



337. The first held at Constantinople, when the Arian 

 heresy gained ground. 



342. At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted 

 eighteen months. 



347. At Sardi; 370 bishops attended. 



359. Of Rimini; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine 

 obliged them to sign a new confession of faith. 



381. The second General at Constantinople; :!."><( 

 bishops attended and Pope Damasius presided. 



431. The third at Ephesus, when Pope Celestine pre- 

 sided. 



451. Fourth at Chalcedon; the Emperor Marcian and 

 his Empress attended. 



553. The fifth at Constantinople, when Pope Vigiliui 

 presided. 



650. The sixth at Constantinople, when Pope Agatha 

 presided. 



715. Authority of the six general councils reestablished 

 by Theodosius. 



787. The second Nicene Council, seventh General; :3">0 

 bishops attended. 



869. Of Constantinople, eighth General; the Emperoff 



Basil attended. 



1122. The first Lateran, the ninth General; the right of 

 investitures settled by treaty between Pope 

 Calixius II. and the Emperor Henry V. 

 1139. The second Lateran, tenth General, Innocent II 

 presided; the preservation of the temporal ties 

 of ecclesiastics, the principal subject which occa- 

 sioned the attendance of 1,000 fathers of the 

 Church. 

 1179. The third Lateran, eleventh General; held against 



schismatics. 



1215. Fourth Lateran, twelfth General; 400 bishopi 

 and 1,000 abbots attended; Innocent 111. pre- 

 sided. 



