SCIENCE, EDUCATION, RELIGION 



719 



instrumental, came into use. In the Eleventh 

 Century we al-o find an innovation by the intro- 

 duction of notes of unequal length, giving variety 

 to melody; and the question of time and rhythm 

 came into consideration. It is supposed that 

 the art of composition was first cultivated in 

 Flanders. The earliest example is of the Tenth 

 Century, and consists simply of a succession, 

 of fourths and fifths. Harmony probably be- 

 longs exclusively to the music of the most civil- 



itions of modern times. In the Sixteenth 

 and Seventeenth Centuries we have Palestrina 

 and his contemporaries, Boyd, Gibbons, etc., 

 who enriched the art by their compositions, 

 simplifying the harmonies, and giving more 

 fl<> \\ing and natural melodies. In the Seven- 

 teen? h and Eighteenth Centuries we have Handel, 

 Bach. Haydn. .Mo/art; and in the Eighteenth 

 and Nineteenth Centuries, perfection of the art 

 has almost been attained in Beethoven, Spohr, 



. Cherubini. Mendelssohn, Chopin, and 

 Schumann, etc. The science of music is treated 

 in works on acoustics, and has reference to the 

 nature of musical sounds and their relation to 

 each other. Under this branch of the science 



tssed musical sounds, the vibrations re- 

 quired to produce them, pitch, harmonies, etc. 

 The t lieory of music has reference to the symbols 

 and the language in which music is expressed, 

 at id to the rules generally laid down in order to 

 produce correct and effective musical composi- 

 tion. The symbols used in music are scales, 

 clefs, forms pf notes and equivalent rests, tune 



us, and others, respecting which informa- 

 tion may be obtained from any catechism of 

 inu -ic. These symbols and signs were not com- 

 pleted in their present form until very recent 

 t lines. Having obtained the necessary materials, 

 the laws of composition may be studied, the 

 simplest form being that of melody, produced by 

 a Dingle voice or instrument. The higher branches 



art are harmony, composition, modula- 

 tion, and counterpoint, the rules for which are 

 laid down in text-books on the subiect. 



Ozone. A substance discovered by Schon- 

 bein. occasionally existing in the atmosphere, 

 and having a peculiar odor resembling that pro- 

 duced when repeated electric sparks, or electric 

 discharges, from a point are transmitted through 

 the air. It is supposed to be an allotropic form 

 of oxygen. It is also formed in certain cases of 

 the slow action of air upon phosphorus. The 

 ng from time to time in the atmos- 



has been supposed to have an influence on 



1 1th of the community, and observations 

 with regard to it are frequently made by means 



apparatus called an ozonometer, the es- 

 wntial parts of which consist of strips of paj>er 

 steeped in a mixture of starch and iodide of 

 potassium. Ozone turns the paper brown, the 

 tint varying with the quantity of ozone. 



Paganism. ! ligion of the heathen 



world, in which the deity is ivpre^-nted under 



various form-, and by all kind- of images OF 



therefore called idolatry or image- 



;>. 111.- theology of the paeans was of 



<>rts fabulous, natural, and political or 

 rivil. Hi.- fabulous treats of the genealogy, 



p, and attributes of their deities.who were 

 for the most part the otT-pring <>f the imagination 



I of poets, painters, and statuaries. The natural 

 theology of the pagans was studied and taught 

 by the philosophers, who rejected the multi- 

 plicity of gods introduced by the poets, and 

 Drought their ideas to a more rational form. 

 The political or civil theology of the pagans was 

 instituted by legislators, statesmen, and poli- 

 ticians, to keep the people in subjection to the 

 civil power. This chiefly related to their tem- 

 ples, altars, sacrifices, and rites of worship. 

 The word pagan was originally applied to tin- 

 inhabitants of the rural districts, who, on the 

 first propagation of the Christian religion, ad- 

 hered to the worship of false gods, or who refused 

 to receive Christianity after it had been adopted 

 by the inhabitants of the cities. In the Middle 

 Ages, this name was given to all who were not 

 Jews or Christians, they only being considered 

 to belong to a true religion ; but in more modern 

 times, Mohammedans, who worship the one su- 

 preme God of the Jews and Christians, are not 

 called pagans. 



Pagoda. A Hindoo place of worship, con- 

 taining an idol. It consists of three portions: 

 an apartment surmounted by a dome, resting on 

 columns, and accessible to all; a chamber into 

 which only Brahmins are allowed to enter; and, 

 lastly, a cell containing the statue of the deity, 

 closed by massive gates. The most remarkable 

 pagodas are those of Benares, Siam, Pegu, and 

 particularly that of Juggernaut, in Orissa. 



Parsees. The name given in India to the 

 fire-worshiping followers of Zoroaster, chiefly 

 settled in Bombay, Surat, etc., where they are 

 amongst the most successful merchants. They 

 have a great reverence for fire in all its forms. 

 since they find in it the symbol of the good deity 

 Ahurii-Mazda (Ormuzd). To this divinity they 

 have dedicated " fire-temples," on whose altar 



I the sarced flame is kept continually burning. 

 Benevolence is the chief practical precept of 

 their religion, and their practice of this finds its 



, evidence in their many charitable institutions. 

 One of the most curious of their customs is in 

 the disposal of their dead. For this they erect 

 what arc called ''towers of silence." built of 

 stone, about twenty-five feet high, and with a 

 small door to admit the corpse. Inside is a large 

 pit with a raised circular platform round it on 

 which the body is exposed that it may be de- 

 nuded of flesh by vultures, after which the bones 

 drop through an iron grating into the pit In-low. 

 Perfectionists, or Bible Commun- 

 ists, popularly named Free-lovers, an Ameri- 

 can sect founded in 1838 by John Humphrey 

 Noyes. Noyes was employed as a law-d 

 Putney, in Vermont, when the fierce religious 

 revival of 1830 spread over the New England 

 States, but he abandoned law for religion, and 

 took UJXMI himself the restoration of the primi- 

 tive Christian ideal. His distinctive doctrine* 

 were: (1) ncon< -illation to God and salvation 

 from sin purely matters of faith; (2) recog- 

 nition of the brotherhood and the equality ..f 

 man and woman; and (3) community of labor 

 and its fruits. In 1838 he succeeded in organic- 

 ing a society giving expression to his views at 

 Putney. Besides himself H s wife, 



his mother, and hi- -jstrr and l>n>ther. who were 

 j..ine.i by several other families. All property 



