724 



THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS 



only an extension of the first, and not a new 

 system in itself has been the chief basis of the 

 popularity of phonetic shorthand. Popular 

 modifications of Pitman's system have been 

 made in the United States by Graham, Burnz, 

 and Munson. 



Skeleton. A term which is popularly u.-nl 

 to denote the system of hard parts forming t In- 

 tony framework of the body. The skeleton of 

 mammalia consists of an axial portion which 

 comprises the skull, the vertebral column, the 

 sternum and ribs, and an appendicular portion 

 consi-ting of the limbs. The skull consists 

 mainly of the cranium, which is the strong bony 

 case or frame which encloses the brain, and af- 

 fords support and protection to the organs of 

 smell, taste, sight, and hearing. To the inferior 

 surface of the cranium are suspended the man- 

 dible, or lower jaw, and also a group of skeletal 

 structures termed the hyoidean apparatus, which 

 supports the tongue, etc. The vertebral or spinal 

 column consists of a series of bones called verte- 

 bra', arranged in close connection with each 

 other on the dorsal side of the neck and trunk. 

 It generally extends posteriorly beyond the 

 trunk to form the tail, and anteriorly it articu- 

 lates with the skull. The number of distinct 

 bones of which the vertebral column consists 

 varies in different animals, the variation being 

 mainly due to the development of the tail. The 

 vertebra differ in form in the different regions 

 of the column, but they are nevertheless con- 

 structed on a common plan. The sternum con- 

 sists of a series of bones placed longitudinally 

 in the middle line of the ventral side of the thorax 

 or chest, and connected on each side with the 

 vertebral column by a series of long, narrow, 

 and more or less flattened bones termed the 

 ribs. The anterior limbs consist of the follow- 

 ing bones : the humerus, or arm-bone ; the radius 

 and ulna, which together constitute the fore- 

 arm; the carpal, or wrist bones; and the meta- 

 carpals and phalanges, or bones of the hand. 

 The posterior limbs consist of the femur, or 

 thigh bone; the tibia and fibula, or leg bones; 

 the tarsal bones, forming the ankle; and the 

 meta-tarsals and phalanges, constituting the 

 bones of the foot. 



Skin. The integument which invests and 

 surrounds the exterior of the body. The skin 

 of man consists of two fundamental layers, viz : 

 the cuticle, or epidermis, and the cutis, dermis, 

 or true skin. The cuticle, or epidermis, is a 

 layer of epithelial cells; it differs in thickness 

 indifferent parts of the body, is without blood- 

 vessels and nerves, and is, therefore, quite de- 

 void of sensibility. It may be divided into two 

 groups of strata, a superficial and a deep stra- 

 tum. The superficial one is what is usually 

 termed the epidermis, in the more precise mean- 

 ing of the word. The inner or deep layer is 

 molded on to the true skin, and consols of 

 softer, moister, and more rounded cells than 

 the outer layer. It is sometimes called the 

 Malphigian layer, or rete mucosum; and it is 

 the seat of the coloring material or pigment of 

 colored races, such as the negro. The cutis or 

 dermis, or true skin, forms the more complex 

 lower layer of the skin. It consists of densely- 

 interwoven tissues, and is well supplied with 



blood-vessels and nerves. This layer contains 

 the sudoriparous or sweat-glands, which e\- 

 crete the perspiration, and also the sebaceous 

 glands, which secrete oily matter, and the func- 

 tion of which it is to keep the skin soft and flex- 

 ible. The papilke of the skin consist of small 

 conical processes on the surface of the cutis. 

 The central portion of each papilla contains a 

 group of blood-vessels and a nerve, and on the 

 more sensitive parts of the skin touch-corpusclea 

 are also present. Hair, nails, etc., are developed 

 from skin. The skin is the organ of the sen>e 

 of touch; it protects the superficial parts of the 

 body; is an organ of respiration, excretion, and 

 absorption; and regulates the temperature of 

 the body. 



Smithsonian Institution. A scien- 

 tific institute in Washington, organized by Act 

 of Congress in 1846, to carry into effect the pro- 

 visions of the will of James Smithson. the 

 founder. Smithson was a natural son of the 

 Duke of Northumberland; was educated at 

 Oxford, and was, in 1790, elected a Fellow of the 

 Royal Society. He died at Genoa in 1829, 

 leaving his property (worth $600,000) to his 

 nephew, with the condition that if the latter 

 died without issue the property was to go to 

 the United States to found an establishment 

 for the / increase and diffusion of knowledge. 

 In 1835, the nephew died childless, and in 1838, 

 the sum of $515,169 was paid to the treasury 

 of the United States. In 1846, the interest on 

 this sum (the principal itself must remain un- 

 touched) was applied to the erection of a suitable 

 building, with apartments for the reception 

 and arrangement of objects of natural history, 

 including a geological and mineralogical cabinet, 

 a chemical laboratory, a library, a gallery of art, 

 and the necessary lecture-rooms. The building 

 is one of the finest in Washington. A portion of 

 the funds of the institution is devoted to scien- 

 tific researches and the publication of works 

 too expensive for private enterprise. Three 

 series of publications are issued: "Contribu- 

 tions to Knowledge," "Miscellaneous Collec- 

 tions/' and "Annual Reports." The institu- 

 tion contains the National Museum, which is, 

 however, wholly maintained by the government. 

 The institution is administered by regents, com- 

 posed of the chief-justice of the United States, 

 three members of the Senate, and three of the 

 House of Representatives, with six other per- 

 sons, not members of Congress. The president 

 vice-president, and members of the cabinet for 

 the time being have the position of governors 

 or visitors of the institution, the president being 

 ex officio at the head. 



Stars, The, are mostly suns, but being, 

 the nearest of them, at a distance from us more 

 than 500,000 times our distance from the sun, 

 are of a size we cannot estimate, but are believed 

 to be 300 times larger than the earth ; they are 

 of unequal brightness, and are, according to this 

 standard, classified as of the first, second, down 

 to the sixteenth magnitude ; those visible to the 

 naked eye include stars from the first to the 

 sixth magnitude, and number 3,000, while 20,- 

 000,000 are visible by the telescope; of these in 

 the Milky Way alone there are 18,000, 000: 

 they are distinguished by their colors as well 



