210 THE PSYCHICAL KINSHIP 



by the inherited tendencies of his own nature and 

 the tendencies of the environment in which he 

 exists. And if any being, after having passed 

 through life, were again placed back at the begin- 

 ning of life and endowed with the same nature as 

 before, and were acted upon through life by sur- 

 roundings identical with those he had previously 

 met, he would act that is, he would exercise his 

 will in precisely the same way in every particular 

 as he had previously done. To deny these things 

 is to assert that the conduct of living beings is 

 without law, and that psychology and sociology 

 are not sciences. 



Non-human beings, all of the higher ones, have 

 the same brain and nervous apparatus as man, 

 and in their involuntary phenomena they closely 

 resemble human beings. Aim a pretended blow 

 near the eyes of a dog or a horse and it will wink 

 involuntarily, just as a human being does. Sever 

 the spinal cord of a man or a frog, and irritate 

 the feet of each, and they will each manifest the 

 same phenomena of reflex action, drawing their 

 feet away each time from the stimulus. 



Instinct and reason are forms of intelligence. 

 Intelligence is the adaptation of acts to ends. 

 Intelligence is manifested by all organisms, both 

 plants and animals, and may be either conscious 

 or unconscious. Plant intelligence and reflex 

 action are forms of unconscious intelligence. Plant 

 intelligence, or the adaptation of acts to ends by 

 plants, is manifested by plants in the shifting of 

 their positions when in need of light in order to 



