34 Veterinary Elements. 



sacs or recesses at intervals. This tube is made up 

 largely of -muscular libers and nerves, a fact to remem- 

 ber in the treatment of such diseases as stoppage of the 

 bowels from over-feeding, with the resultant paralysis of 

 the muscular fibres of the bowel, consequently the admin- 

 istration of purgatives in such cases is not advisable until 

 the paralyzed condition is overcome; sometimes these 

 muscular fibres are cramped, illustrations of which are 

 seen in spasmodic colic. The lining of the tube is a del- 

 icate tissue known as mucous membrane, which is made 

 up of layers of cells in which are blood vessels, nerves 

 and glands, the surface of this mucous membrane is 

 smooth; although it may be more or less roughened, as 

 seen and felt on the tongue of animals; in the small in- 

 testines this membrane is arranged in little finger-like 

 projections known as villi. 



I. Prehension and Mastication and the organs employed. 

 The seizing of food and conveying of that food to the 

 mouth is performed in various ways by the different ani- 

 mals, the horse uses the upper lip and front teeth for 

 this purpose, the cow using the tongue only, thus we 

 understand the fallacy of letting cattle follow sheep on 

 pasture land; sheep use a combination of tongue and lip, 

 the hog uses both upper and lower portions of the snout, 

 they both graze and root. The mouth is the entrance to 

 the digestive tract, it contains the tongue, teeth, and re- 

 ceives the .secretions of the salivary glands; it is guarded 

 by the lips, formed of circular muscles and sensitive hairs. 

 Animals that chew the cud (ruminants) frequently lack the 

 front upper row (the incisors) of teeth, the pi ace of which is 

 taken by a firm pad of gristle (cartilage), it is also inter- 



