SODOM 



hydroxide or caustic soda. Sodium is used in 

 the laboratory for extracting water from alco- 

 hol and ether, and in the manufacture of some 

 compounds. The uses of salt and soda salt- 

 peter are described under the headings SALT 

 and SALTPETER. Sodium arsenate is used in 

 place of arsenic (which see), and the bromide 

 and iodide are employed as remedies in nerv- 

 ous disease. 



SOD'OM, one of the ancient cities of the 

 plain north of the Dead Sea. It lay in a re- 

 gion described in Genesis XIII, 10, as having 

 been "like the garden of the Lord," till Sodom 

 and Gomorrah, a neighboring city, were over- 

 thrown by God because of the extreme wick- 

 edness of their inhabitants. It was at the time 

 of the destruction of Sodom that Lot escaped 

 in safety, while his wife, lingering on the way, 

 is said to have been turned into a pillar of salt. 

 The fate of Sodom and Gomorrah is repeatedly 

 mentioned in the Bible. Jesus himself, when 

 exhorting His disciples to steadfastness (Luke 

 XVII, 32), used the admonition, "Remember 

 Lot's wife." 



SODOM, APPLE OF, a fruit said to be beauti- 

 ful to the sight, but to fill the mouth with bit- 

 ter ashes when tasted. In early literature it is 

 recorded as growing near the shores of the 

 Dead Sea. By many it is considered to have 

 been merely legendary, while others attempt 

 to identify it with one or another of the plants 

 now growing in that region. Some believe it 

 to be a species of gall found on dwarf oaks 

 (see GALLS). The only Bible passage that can 

 be said to refer to this fruit is that found in 

 Deuteronomy XXXII, 32: 



For their vine is the vine of Sodom, 

 And of the fields of Gomorrah : 

 Their grapes are grapes of gall, 

 Their clusters are bitter. 



SOFIA, saw'feya, known as SREDEC (sreh 1 

 dels) by the Bulgarians, the capital and largest 

 city of Bulgaria, is situated in the west- 

 ern part of the country on an elevated plain 

 1,800 feet above the sea. It is on a line of 

 railway that after the entrance of Bulgaria 

 into the War of the Nations (which see) was 

 opened from Berlin to Constantinople. The 

 latter city is 300 miles southeast of Sofia (see 

 map of Europe, following page 2092). Most of 

 the modern part of the city has been rebuilt 

 since 1878, and enjoys such innovations as 

 street railways and electric lights. 



Among the notable buildings are the palace 

 of the king, a cathedral, the buildings of the 

 university (founded in 1888 and having an en- 



SOIL 



rolment of about 2,200 before the war), a large 

 theater and the government buildings. Sofia is 

 the foremost railroad and industrial center of 

 Bulgaria; it has thriving manufacturing estab- 

 lishments and carries on a prosperous export 

 trade in foodstuffs, attar of roses and hides. 

 The present city is on the site of a Roman 

 town called Sardica. In the older portion are 

 some famous mineral springs. Sofia was bom- 

 barded by allied airships during the War of the 

 Nations. Population in 1910, 102,812. See BUL- 

 GARIA. 



SOIL. The greater part of the earth's sur- 

 face is covered with a layer of loose particles, 

 varying in depth from a few inches to several 

 feet. This layer is called soil. To the geolo- 

 gist the entire layer is soil, but the agriculturist 

 includes in his idea of soil only those portions 

 that are suitable for the production of plants. 



Formation of Soil. The processes that form 

 soil have been in operation from the remotest 

 geological ages, and they are still active. The 

 chief agencies in its formation are the atmos- 

 phere, water, plants and animals. 



Work of the Atmosphere. Air is composed 

 chiefly of nitrogen and oxygen, and oxygen is 

 the most active chemical agent known. Under 

 the influence of moisture it attacks the rocks 

 and causes them to decay and crumble; the 

 fine particles formed in this way are added to 

 the soil. Again, in dry regions high winds wear 

 away the rock by driving against it particles 

 of sand which they carry, and the particles thus 

 worn away are carried in the air until they 

 fall to the earth and are added to the soil. 

 The peculiar forms of rocks in the Bad Lands 

 of South Dakota and other localities are fash- 

 ioned by wind. In sandy regions sand dunes 

 or drifts are formed by the wind, and in other 

 localities fertile soil is often carried greater or 

 less distances and added to the soil of the 

 region where it falls. 



Work of Water. Water is by far the most 

 important agent in the formation of soil. Run- 

 ning water will wear the hardest rock, and 

 since nearly all running water carries sand and 

 gravel, these assist in wearing the rocks over 

 which the stream flows. The particles worn off 

 are carried downstream until deposited on its 

 bed or banks, forming the great alluvial de- 

 posits which characterize the lower portions of 

 the valleys of great rivers; these formations 

 contain some of the most fertile soil in the 

 world. 



Rain and snow assist the atmosphere in 

 breaking rocks into small fragments. When 



