GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE 



It will be seen that some of the clover in the 

 picture has not been cut well. In explana- 

 tion, I will say that, just before we started 

 to cut this hay, a new pitman arm had been 

 put on the mower, and it drew the sickle 

 too far one way, and hardly cut at all on the 

 return stroke. If this had not been the case, 

 there would have been a smooth top. 



The cocks of hay shown were out in two 

 showers, but nothing was colored except the 

 outside. The middle cured to perfection, 

 and went to the barn as green as tea leaves. 

 This field was mown when just coming into 

 bloom, and the stubble grew up and made 

 a seed crop. 



The reader may be interested to know- 

 that clover of any kind in this part of Iowa 

 was very rare last year, as severe drouth had 

 killed all other clovers except a little alsike 

 here and there. Sweet clover grew as though 

 there had been no drouth. 



Delmar, Iowa. 



THE WHITE FLOWERS OF NORTH AMERICA 



BY JOHN H. LOVELL 



White flowers are most common in our 

 flora as well as in that of Europe, and 955 

 species occur in northeastern America. 

 They contain no pigments. Like the snow 

 and "powdered glass they owe their color to 

 their optical properties — that is, to the re- 

 flection and refraction of the rays of light 

 by the minute cells of which they are com- 

 posed. To produce a vast number of blos- 

 soms must, of course, tax the energies of a 

 plant, and the absence of pigments lessens 

 this expenditure. Like white leaves, I be- 

 lieve that white flowers are the result of ret- 

 rogression or degeneration. Any bright- 

 colored flower may occasionally revert to 

 white. Whatever impairs the vigor and vi- 

 tality of the plant, as cold, impoverished 

 soil, injury to the roots, or continued self- 

 fertilization, will cause the floral hues to be- 

 come paler, or change to white. I once 

 transplanted a scarlet poppy when in bud, 

 and the flowers became much smaller, and 

 changed to pure white. White flowers are 

 most common in the cold days of May, and 

 gradually become rarer toward autumn. In 

 the arctic climate of Spitzbergen the flowers 

 are chiefly white, and there are few yellow 

 and red, while blue appears to fail entirely. 

 In East Greenland the flowers are likewise 

 chiefly white. 



On the other hand, whatever stimulates 

 the growth of a plant, as bright sunlight, 

 strong manures, or crossing, increases the 

 brilliancy of the flowers. When lowland 

 white flowers have been cultivated in the 

 intense light of alpine heights they have in 

 some cases become red. An application of 

 nitrate of soda will increase the brilliancy of 

 a flower; and tulips, when treated with strong 

 manure, flush and lose their variegated col- 

 ors. The brightness of the floral hues is al- 

 so increased by crossing. 



From this point of view we can under- 



stand why white flowers are most common 

 in nature, and why they are truest to name 

 under cultivation. Naturally florists find 

 that they can develop any desired color vari- 

 ety from a white flower more easily than from 

 one already containing pigments. 



Nature is an excellent economist. Trees 

 and shrubs whose fruits are edible by man 

 or birds usually produce their blossoms in 

 boundless profusion, and they are almost 

 invariably white, or nearly so — the two 

 most noteworthy exceptions being the peach 

 and the huckleberry, which have red or red- 

 dish blossoms. Among trees are the apple, 

 pear, plum, cherries in variety, the quince 

 and the orange; while among shrubs are the 

 blackberries, raspberries, blueberries, the 

 hollies, cornels, viburnums, and thorn- 

 bushes. All of these species contain nectar, 

 and are visited by honey bees. 



There is nothing more beautiful in the 

 floral vegetation of the world than an apple 

 orchard laden with expanding blossoms. 

 The great masses of flowers form billowing 

 banks of whiteness, tinged with rose and 

 flecked with the vivid green of the unfold- 

 ing leaf-buds, from which exhales the well- 

 known sweet fragrance of the apple blossom. 



Spring walks abroad in all the fields to-day; 



Her touch has left the apple orchards white: 

 The baby buds that waited for the May 



Have shaken out their petals overnight; 

 Against the rugged boughs they softly press. 



Weaving in the mantle of their loveliness. 



Spring walks abroad with songs of life and cheer: 

 A thousand gifts she joyfully bestows: 



But all her fairest handiwork is here 

 Where orchards toss their drifts of scented 

 snows. 



Alfred Russel Wallace, who spent many 

 years of his life in exploring the vast forests 

 of the Amazon and the islands of the Malay 

 Archipelago, declares, "I have never seen 

 any thing more glorious than an old crab- 

 tree in full blossom; and the horse-chestnut, 

 lilac, and laburnum will vie with the choic- 

 est tropical trees and shrubs." The cornels 

 and viburnums are justly ranked among 

 our handsomest shrubs, for the great clusters 

 of white flowers transform the whole shrub 

 into a huge bouquet. 



The largest tree flowers known belong to 

 the magnolia. One southern species has a 

 white flower with a purple center which 

 measures ten inches across. "Their effect 

 in early spring is grand beyond description, 

 illuminating the whole landscape and fill- 

 ing the air with rich perfume." Of the five 

 northern species, four are white and one is 

 greenish yellow. Magnificent white flowers 

 are likewise displayed by several species of 

 pond lilies; but very frequently white flowers 

 are of small size, and conspicuousness is 

 gained by their aggregation in masses. 



Small densely clustered white flowers 

 standing in the same horizontal plane, and 

 affording a convenient landing-place for 

 insects, are very common in the mustard, 

 saxifrage, carrot, cornel, honeysuckle, and 

 aster families. This type of flower cluster is 

 excellently illustrated by the carrot family 

 or Umbelliferce. To this family belong the 



