Ch. I.] PLOUGHS. 3 



AB is the beam ; CD, the coulter; E, the sock, or share, which is made 

 witli a fin or feather, whereby tlie firm earth at the bottom of the furrow 

 is cut more completely than was practicable by the old plough, tlie share 

 of which was merely pointed. F is the head, or sheath ; G, the sole, or 

 chep ; and the heel, or foot, which in some ploughs is a continuation of 

 one of the stilts. The mould-board is at H ; at 1 are tlie stilts ; and at 

 the end of the beam, at K, there is an iron crank, called indifferently by 

 the names of "copse," "cat-head," "bridle," or " muzzle," which is bolted 

 through it in different ways to suit the various opinions of the makers, so as 

 both to elevate or depress it, and to move it to diflerent sides ; but is gene- 

 rally fastened with a moveable crescent, as at L- 



The uses of these several parts are, that the beam serves as a line of 

 connexion for the reception of the coulter, the head, and the foot of the 

 implement, and thus combines its different members in one firm basis. It 

 must, therefore, be made of considerable strength, and the mortises for 

 iheir reception should be placed nearly in the centre of its breadth. The 

 coulter c?A\ be moved up or down through the mortise in the beam, as cir- 

 cumstances may require, and is formed of iron, like the blade of a knife, 

 the front being edged with steel, and sharpened so as to facilitate the cutting 

 of the sward and the breaking up of leys, or land abounding with weeds. 

 The share, which is attached to the sole and sheath, penetrates and turns 

 up the soil under the coulter to such a breadth and depth as it may be judged 

 expedient to stir it ; and the mould-board, which is inclined in a slanting 

 direction to the right, lays the furrow over to that side. The sheath, when 

 tlie implement is partly constructed of wood, is defended by thin plates of iron, 

 to cause it to move smoothly along the land side without allowing loose 

 earth to fall in and encumber its course. A thick piece of cast iron is also put 

 tipon the lower part to protect it as being the most subject to friction, and thus 

 forms the sole : and, according to the best rules of construction, the point 

 of the share, point of the fin, and heel of the land side, should all touch a 

 level surface. Whatever kind of share be used, the rake or sweep made 

 by the head should also correspond with that formed by the coulter ; for 

 the one is intended to follow the other as closely as possible, and, if the two 

 parts are not parallel, a partial action is given to the instrument. 



The muzzle, to which the harness of the teami is hooked, is notched, 

 so as to admit of altering the position of the plough, and thus regulates 

 the draught, either by giving it more or less land, and fixing the de])lh 

 at which it is to be worked ; and the stilts are the handles by which 

 the ploughman liolds and guides it during the operation of ploughing. 

 When a pair of stilts are used, one usually forms part of the foot, 'and the 

 other is firmly riveted to the mould-board, both being combined by cross 

 pieces, and thus adding considerably to the firmness of the instrument. In 

 Norfolk, however, and latterly in other counties, it is much the custom to 

 employ only one fixed stilt, attached to the beam, as the ploughman is thus 

 prevented from bearing his weight upon them and increasing the draught; 

 and, in stony land, there is the further objection that accidents sometimes 

 happen to the ploughmen by their receiving severe blows from resistance 

 offered to the plough when walking between the stilts. A loose handle, 

 called a plough-staff, is, however, generally attached for occasional use, 

 when necessary, to aid the motion of the implement, on which it acts as 

 a lever, and is furnished with a hook to clear the mould-board and coulter 

 from weeds. 



Formerly the plough was a cumbrous machine, made with little 

 regard to tlie principles of mechanism ; for it was considered that an 



B 2 



