COTTON IN EGYPT AND THE SUDAN. 63 



loosening of the soil, than on the fields of the small fellah, but in 

 the main the whole method of cultivation in the entire Delta is the 

 same, and generally speaking, the industrious fellah tills his field 

 very carefully, in spite of the use in the Delta of the most primitive 

 implements, viz., the plough and the hand hoe, mentioned 

 already in the Old Testament. 



The best piece of land that is to be cultivated is selected for 

 cotton ; the first work is to level the surface of the field most care- 

 fully, in order that the irrigation can easily be undertaken. In this 

 work, as well as in the ploughing, care must be taken that deep- 

 lying strata, which are not adapted for cultivation, are not brought 

 to the surface. Where necessary, the salt must be removed from 

 the soil. The levelling of one feddan, including the laying out of 

 irrigation ditches, costs about ;E2-| to ;E3. 



Then follows the tilling proper ; it is important that the soil be 

 ploughed repeatedly, allowing some time in between each ploughing. 



When the field has been lying fallow, it is watered by the Nile 

 flood in August, and it requires only two ploughings then. This method 

 is practised only by few large Domains. Maize is mostly planted 

 in June, after the harvesting of the winter crop, and after the maize 

 has been gathered in November the land is left for a short time 

 either fallow or it is planted with clover, which at times is sown 

 between the maize ; in such case the soil really requires four plough- 

 ings before sowing it with cotton. 



The large planter is satisfied with one cut of clover, and has 

 therefore time to plough four or even five times, and in such a way 

 a soil is prepared that will further the development of the cotton 

 plants, will cause an earlier ripening, and consequently the 

 plants will be less exposed to the injurious autumn fogs and rains. 

 A small fellah is not content with one cut of clover, he takes tw r o or 

 three crops off, but this is false economy, for by doing so he delays 

 the ploughing too long, with the effect that he can only give two 

 ploughings before the sowing season for cotton comes in. 



After the clover or wheat crop has been brought in during 

 January the fields are ploughed in February ; the peasant ploughs 

 his field first lengthways, then after a few days crossways, in order 

 to loosen those places which the plough on its first journey did not 

 break up. 



As the Egyptian plough has no furrow board the clods are not 

 turned up, they are mostly broken up by hand. If the condition of 

 the soil is still not as it ought to be, the plough is worked over it once 

 more. The large landowner works exactly in the same way with the 

 steam-grubber. After each ploughing the soil is mostly levelled by 

 dragging over the land a heavy wooden beam, about 4 m. long, 

 called the " Zahaffa. " The disc roller, which is such a useful appli- 

 ance for breaking up the clods, is very seldom used. 



The Egyptian plough, yoked with two oxen or camels, penetrates 

 only about 10 cm. to 12 cm. deep into the top layer of the soil, and 

 can only plough about one-half to three-quarter feddans per day, but 

 the soil is sufficiently loosened by ploughing it crossways to enable 

 the roots of the young plants to penetrate even through heavy and 

 retentive soil. 



It is strongly recommended, in view of the long tap roots of the 



