44 THE IRR1 GA 2 ION A GE. 



While the foundations of such works are usually built of concrete or 

 brickwork, yet timber is often used in the superstructure, both for 

 economy and rapidity of construction. Though repairs and renewals 

 are required from time to. time, still these are easily carried out each 

 year during the months the canals are dry, and there is no danger to 

 be apprehended from any long continued rnnning of an inundation 

 canal being required. 



The construction of the canals and ditches in the western sta,tes 

 of America correspond more closely with that of these inundation 

 canals, than with that of the large perennial canals of North India. 

 For both the canals of America and these Indian inundation canals 

 are constructed with a view to economy in first construction, and to 

 being quickly brought into use, leaving renewals and repairs to be 

 done from time to time, when the canals are not in flow. 



Labor is extremely cheap in India, while it is more costly in 

 America. For instance earthwork can be done in India for one-eighth 

 of its cost in America. A job for which twelve cents per cubic yard 

 would be paid in America, would cost only about 1 cents in North 

 India (taking the Indian Anna as equal to two cents, at the present 

 value of the rupee which is about one-third of a dollar.) Earthwork 

 in excavation in India is done entirely by hunfan labor, machinery or 

 teams of horses, or yokes of bullocks not being used, except in very 

 special cases of large works, or embankments which require to be 

 trodden down and consolidated during construction. Digging out the 

 earth is done by a man with a broad bladed mattock, with which also 

 he fills the earth into baskets, and these are carried away on their 

 heads by men, women and children, who throw down the earth where 

 required. The final dressing to correct shape of the finished channel 

 or embankment would be done by these mattocks also. In digging, 

 the mattock is wielded by the arms, and brought down with a blow on 

 the ground; the Indian laborer does not use his feet to press it into 

 the ground for the reason that his feet are bare, or have on only light 

 shoes like slipper; it requires a strong boot or shoe to press a spade 

 into the ground. The daily wage of a laborer on earthwork would be 

 only six or eigth cents (three or four Annas). 



In consequence of earthwork being thus so inexpensive while the 

 massive stone or brick structures required as falls, drops or rapids, 

 are comparatively costly in material, it is usual to design the channels 

 of large canals in India with longer reaches between falls, and with 

 banks higher above ground level, than would be done in America. 

 The bed of a canal (in a country where the grading or slope of the bed 

 was less steep than that of the country) would be allowed to run on to, 

 or nearly on to, the natural surface of the ground, before a fall would 

 be put in. With a depth of seven feet of water, the canal banks 



