188 THE PRINCIPLES OF HANDLING WOODLANDS 



ginning to allow for loss through accident and for thin- 

 nings. 



When a cutting is made, the spaces formerly occupied 

 by the old standards are filled with seedlings by planting. 

 The younger standards are inspected carefully, and thin- 

 nings are made when desirable, so as to benefit the best 

 standards and to maintain the area occupied by each age- 

 class at about the normal. 



The species used as standards are those which have a 

 relatively light foliage, such as oak and ash. The under- 

 wood is best composed of comparatively tolerant species, 

 such as (in Europe) alder, hornbeam, beech, elm, and 

 maple. 



The standards are crowded from the side only during 

 the life of the sprouts, and consequently have only a 

 comparatively short stem cleared of branches. Since 

 they stand isolated for most of their life, they develop 

 broad, spreading crowns. The diameter growth is at a 

 maximum, and they produce one or two very large logs. 



