TREES AND CIVILISATION 197 



ing. At other times, a better result is obtained by 

 artificial planting. 



More complicated methods are the various shel- 

 ter-wood systems. Their principle is to grow young 

 trees under the shade and protection of their 

 fathers and mothers. A virgin forest is often 

 cleared of its more promising specimens in what 

 is called the seed-cutting. After reproduction has 

 taken place and young trees have gotten a firm 

 start in the openings, a final cutting takes out all 

 of the original timber. 



With certain species of trees a coppice or lazy 

 man's system may be practised. This is no less 

 than not to provide for new trees at all, but to rely 

 upon sprouts from old stumps to furnish new 

 growths. These, however, rarely develop into 

 stately and useful trees. 



Under any of the regimes, forest development 

 should be aided and protected in numerous other 

 ways. The woods must be thinned to provide all 

 specimens with the requisite amount of air and light. 

 Small specimens must be liberated from the over- 

 bearing shadow of greatly advanced individuals. 

 Trees that are hopelessly deformed or damaged by 

 the elements should be removed. 



Protection against fire is a great problem in itself. 

 Fire not only kills great numbers of trees, but often 



