78 



NATURE 



\_Nov. 25, 1875 



SCIENTIFIC SERIALS 



The Journal of the Chemical Society for October contains but 

 one paper communicated to the Society, viz., a lengthy commu- 

 nication on the chemistry of tartaric and citric acids, by Mr. R. 

 Warington. The author has liad considerable experience in the 

 manufacture of these acids, having, been for some years chemist 

 to the factoiy of Mr. J. B. Lawes. The author's experiments 

 prove that the citric acid of commerce contains one molecule of 

 water corresponding to the formula CpHgOy, HjO. Some inte- 

 resting results have been brought to light in the course of some 

 experiments made with a view to determine the water of crys- 

 tallisation in various samples of the acid. Thus in one deter- 

 mination a specimen of the powdered acid lost the whole of its 

 water over sulphuric acid in a few days, at a temperature of 16°. 

 In another experiment the powdered acid lost but a mere trace 

 of water in vacuo over vitriol for some days, while the same 

 acid heated to 100° lost its normal amount of water. Results 

 of an equally contradictory nature were obtained with various 

 other samples of the acid tried at subsequent periods. It has been 

 proved also that a strong solution of citric acid undergoes con- 

 siderable contraction when mixed with water. — The next section 

 of the paper relates to the acidity and commercial value of the 

 different lime, lemon, and bergamot juices supplied for the 

 manufacture of citric acid. The nature of some of the acids 

 existing in the concentrated juices is to be made the subject of 

 further research ; up to the present time, in addition to citric, 

 formic, acetic, and possibly propionic, acids have been detected. 

 It appears, however, that the organic acids other than citric 

 which exist in the juice are chiefly non-volatile, and have soluble 

 calcium salts. Phosphoric acid has also been found, and there 

 is reason to suspect malic and aconitic acids, the latter being 

 produced by the concentration of the juice. With regard to 

 calcium citrate, it has been found that the amount of water con- 

 tained in this salt varies according to the mode of preparation, a 

 result demanding further investigation. The author next gives 

 details of the method employed for analysing the citric acid liquors. 

 With regard to tartaric acid, it is found that a strong solution 

 contracts even more than citric acid when mixed with water. 

 The author then proceeds to consider the qualitative reactions of 

 tartaric, metatartaric, and ditartaric acids. Contrary to the state- 

 ment given in books, it has been found that calcium acetate yields 

 a crystalline precipitate of calcium tartrate, even in dilute solu- 

 tions of tartaric acid. Free tartaric acid also is precipitated by 

 calcium chloride in the presence of alcohol. The reactions with 

 the acetates of lead and barium have likewise been studied. 

 With regard to the amount of water in calcium tartrate, the 

 author concludes that the salt has no definite composition at 100°. 

 A very complete series of experiments upon the solubility of 

 potassium bitartrate has been made, and the remainder of the 

 paper is devoted to the materials used for the manufacture of 

 tartaric acid, viz. lees, argol, and tartar, and the methods of 

 analysis employed in their valuation. Mr. Warington deserves 

 ci-edit for thus contributing to the general store of knowledge 

 from the experience gained in the chemical factory. A great 

 deal of manufacturing chemistry is at present carried on without 

 any regard to the scientific principles involved, and if manufac- 

 turers would only be somewhat more free in communicating 

 apparently inexplicable facts to the scientific world, the advan- 

 tage gained could not but be mutually beneficial. To quote the 

 author's own words : — " A large amount of information is 

 acquired in the laboratories of our great manufacturing concerns ; 

 most of this might be published without any injury to the indi- 

 vidual manufacturer. Especially is this true of analytical 

 methods, and the publication and discussion of these would do 

 much to remove the disgrace to which science is often subjected 

 from the wide discrepancies of commercial analyses." We cor- 

 dially echo the hope "that the publication of these notes may 

 lead to many similar communications." — The remainder of this 

 part is occupied by abstracts of papers from British and foreign 

 journals, 



Foggendorff^s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 10, 1875. 

 In this is given the remaining portion of Prof. Stein's article on 

 the formation oi sound ; and from his analysis of the motions of 

 tuning-forks he concludes that only displacements of the nature 

 of condensation and rarefaction yield sound : that the strength 

 of the tones depends, among other things, on the size of the 

 sounding mass ; and that only transversal or rectilinear excursions 

 produce resonance. With these data he explains a number of 

 phenomena ; the disproportionate loudness of forks held near 



the ear, &c. — MM. Kundt and Warburg give the concluding 

 part of their researches " On friction and heat-conduction of 

 rarefied gases." After discussing the capability of their appa- 

 ratus for determining coefficients of heat-conduction, they show 

 that these coefficients are independent of pressure within 150 mm. 

 to about I mm. for air and carbonic acid, and 150 mm. to 9 mm. 

 for hydrogen. They tried to produce an actual vacuum in regard 

 to heat-conduction, and by drying to 200° they reduced the con- 

 duction to a small fraction of its original value. The co-efficient 

 for hydrogen (in accordance with Maxwell's theory and Stefan's 

 experiments) they found to be yi greater than that of air ; while 

 that of carbonic acid was 0'o82 of that of hydrogen, which 

 is considerably smaller than by Maxwell's theory. — M. 

 Edlund gives an experimental demonstration that galvanic 

 resistance is affected by the motion of the conductor. He made 

 a current pass in two opposite directions from the middle part of 

 a tube, through water that was sent through the tube ; and with 

 a galvanometer proved that the resistance was less where the 

 galvanic current went -with the liquid one. — There is another 

 electrical paper, in which Dr. Bleekrode recommends ebonite 

 as preferable to glass in many ways for the discs of " electro- 

 machines." He gives a resume of the various modifications of 

 the Holtz machine that have appeared, and describes several 

 observations with the ebonite electro-machines. — M. Glan has 

 a paper on the change of phase of light polarised, through reflec- 

 tion, parallel to the plane of incidence. — M. Emsmann describes 

 a curious phenomenon bearing on binocular vision ; while M. 

 Vogel gives an account of spectral observations on the Red Sea 

 and Indian Ocean, and in the blue Grotto of Capri. 



Transactions of the Royal Society of New South Wales for the 

 year 1874. — This number contains the following, among other 

 papers : — Description of eleven new species of Terrestrial and 

 Marine Shells from North-west Australia, by Mr. John Brazier, 

 C.M.Z.S. — Iron Pyrites, by Mr. J. Latta, — Nickel Minerals from 

 New Caledonia, and Iron Ore and Coal Deposits at Wallera- 

 wang, N.S.W., by Prof. Liversidge. — Some of the results of 

 the observation of the Transit of Venus in New South Wales 

 (with diagrams), by Mr. H. C. Russell, Government Astronomer. 

 — The Transit of Venus as observed at Eden, by the Rev. Wm. 

 Scott. 



Bulletin de V Academic Royale des Sciences^ torn, xl. No. 8. — 

 The two original communications in the *' Classe des Sciences" 

 are a long article on arithmetical operations, by J. C. Houzeau, 

 and a description of some fossil plants from the *' Poudingue de 

 Burnot" (Lower Devonian), by Dr. A. Gilkinet. The two 

 species are FdicHes pinnatus (Coemans) and Filicites lepidorachis 

 (Coemans), which latter Dr. Gilkinet removes from the Ferns 

 and places among the Lycopods, under the name Lefidodcndron 

 Burnotense. There are three plates of figures. 



SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES 



London 



Royal Society, Nov. 19. — " On the Physiological Action 

 of Vanadium," by John Priestley, Piatt Physiological Scholar, 

 the Owens College, Manchester. Communicated by Prof. 

 Gamgee, F. R.S. 



Thirty-one experiments are detailed, in which frogs, a pigeon, 

 guinea-pigs, rabbits, dogs, and cats were made use of. From 

 these experiments it is gathered : — 



1 . That vanadium is a poisonous substance. 



2. That the symptoms of poisoning are, in general, similar, 

 whatever the method of the introduction of the salt into the 

 animal system. 



3. That the symptoms of poisoning which appeared in one or 

 other of the various classes of animals above mentioned are : 

 paralysis of motion j convulsions, local or general ; rapidly super- 

 vening drowsiness, or indifference to external circumstances ; 

 congestion of alimentary mucous membranes ; discharge of san- 

 guinolent fluid faeces ; presence of glairy, fluid mucus in the intes- 

 tines after death ; certain changes in respiration, and, coinci- 

 dently, a fall in temperature ; drowsiness and feebleness of pulse. 

 In addition the heart was always irritable after death ; consious- 

 ness and sensibility to pain seemed unimpaired ; and no 

 diminution could be detected in the powers of muscle and nerve 

 to respond to stimulation. 



4. That the lethal dose for rabbits lies between 9*18 mgr. and 

 14 "66. mgr. of VjOj per kilog. of rabbits. 



The author details a number of experiments undertaken with 



