114 SKELETON OF THE OX 



very large further back. The articular processes are large, and their facets are 

 more strongly curved than in the horse. The transverse processes all curve 

 forward. They are separated by considerable intervals, and form no articulations 

 with each other or with the sacrum. Their borders are thin and irregular, and often 

 bear projections of variable size and form. The first is the shortest and the length 

 increases to the fifth, the last being considerably shorter. The spinous processes 

 are relatively low and wide, the last being the smallest; their summits are moder- 

 ately thickened. 



The sacrum is longer than that of the horse. It consists originally of five 

 segments, but fusion is more complete and involves the spinous processes, which 

 are imited to form a median sacral crest, with a convex thick and rough margin. 

 A lateral crest is formed by the fusion of the articular processes. The pelvic 

 surface is concave in both directions, and is marked by a central groove, which 

 indicates the course of the middle sacral artery. The inferior sacral foramina are 

 large. The wings are quadrangular, short, compressed from before backward, 

 and high dorso-ventrally. They have an extensive anterior surface, which is 

 concave from side to side, and non-articular. The posterior surface is rough, and 

 bears a triangular area below for articulation w4th the ilium. The body of the 

 first segment is very wide, and the entrance to the sacral canal correspondingly 

 wide and low. The anterior articular processes are large, and are concave and 

 semi-cylindrical in curvature internally. The lateral borders are thin, sharp, and 

 irregular. The apex is wider than in the horse, and the posterior end of the crest 

 forms a pointed projection over the opening of the sacral canal. 



The coccygeal vertebrae are longer and better developed than in the horse. 

 The first five or six have complete arches and spinous processes. The transverse 

 processes are relatively large in the anterior part of the series, in which there are 

 also anterior articular processes (which do not articulate), and a pair of ventral 

 spines which form a hsemal groove for the middle coccygeal artery. 



Vertebral curves: The cervical curve is very slight and is concave dorsally. The thoracic 

 and lumbar regions form a gentle curve, concave ventrally. The promontory is more pronounced 

 than in the horse, especially in subjects in which the sacrum is inclined upward behind. Another 

 promontory occurs at the junction of the sacrum and first coccygeal vertebrae. 



Length: The following table gives the lengths of the regions of a shorthorn cow of medium 

 size: 



Cervical 47 cm. 



Thoracic 75 cm. 



Lumbar 40 cm. 



Sacral 24 cm. 



Coccygeal 75 cm. 



261 cm. 



Variations: Sometimes fourteen thoracic vertebra? and fourteen pairs of ribs are present; 

 reduction to twelve with the normal number of lumbar verteln-a? is very rare. AccorcHng to 

 Franck, there are sometimes seven lumbar vertel)ra^ with the normal number in the thoracic 

 region. The number of coccygeal vertebrae may vary from sixteen to twenty-one. 



THE RIBS 



Thirteen pairs of ribs are normally present, of which eight are sternal and five 

 asternal. They are in general longer, wider, flatter, less curved, and less regular 

 in form than in the horse. The eighth, ninth, and tenth are the longest and widest. 

 The width of most of the ribs increases considerably in the middle, and the breadth 

 of the intercostal spaces is correspondingly diminished. The neck is long, and forms 

 (except in the posterior part of the series) a smaller angle with the shaft than in the 

 horse. The articular surface of the tubercle is concave transversely, except on the 

 last two or three, where the facet is small and flat or absent. The lower ends of the 

 second to the tenth or eleventh inclusive form diarthrodial joints with the costal 



