Sept. 5, 1889] 



NATURE 



455 



Jemtland, where several of the localities in which the palasonto- 

 iogical discoveries were made are surrounded by spruce forests, 

 and where the tree grows higher up on the mountains than the 

 fir, which is the reverse of what is generally the case. In 

 Jemtland, therefore, the spruce clearly immigrated after the 

 fir, and first when the principal tuff formation had ceased. 

 Whence did the spruce immigrate into Sweden ? It can- 

 not have been from the south or from Denmark, for remains of 

 the tree are totally absent in that country's well -explored peat- 

 bogs, neither does it belong to Denmark's present wild flora. 

 Neither can the spruce have come from the British Isles. 

 Certainly it appears froni palseontological evidence that the 

 spruce existed in England before the Ice age, but it appears to 

 have been extinguished during that age, as it is absent from the 

 post-glacial deposits as well as from the I3ritish flora of the present 

 day. Unaliy, the scarcity of the spruce in the western parts of 

 South-Eastern Norway fully proves that it did not immigrate from 

 the west. There cannot, therefore, be the slightest doubt that the 

 spruce immigrated into Sweden from the east. This assumption 

 corresponds entirely with the present extension of the tree east 

 of the Baltic. But this immigration cannot have taken place 

 vid Northern Sweden around the Gulf of Bothnia, as this part 

 can be supposed to have had only at a later period a climate 

 mild enough for its existence. It is more probable that the im- 

 migration tODk place„?7(^ the Island of Gothland on the south- 

 east coast, or viA the Aland Islands, off Central Sweden, and that 

 the spruce afterwards spread north, west, and southwards. 



It may be mentioned, by the way, that the spruce existed in 

 the neighbourhood of Enkoping at the time when Lake 

 Miilaren was a bay of the Baltic, and the sea covered the spot 

 where the town is now situated. Of great importance with 

 regard to this point is the discovery recently made by Dr. H. 

 Munthe, that the spruce was found in Gothland at a time so far 

 remote that the division of land and sea then was wholly different 

 from that which at present exists. This seems to speak for the 

 immigration of the spruce by this road. Further, Dr. R. Hult, of 

 Helsingfors, last summer discovered in West Nyland, in Finland, 

 sub-fossil remains of spruce in a stratum which he estimates to 

 be older than the remains of spruce found in Scandinavia, and he 

 therefore considers that the spruce immigrated fro n Finland. 



Considering the present and past extension of the spruce in 

 Europe, one might be incHned to assume that the true home of 

 this tree was Scandinavia, whence it was driven in the Glacial 

 age, but this, it is now being demonstrated, was not the case. 

 Now, the spruce, in spite of its relatively late immigation, has 

 in Sweden .spread greatly, forming huge forests ; and we might 

 be disposed to conclude that in its turn it would extinguish other 

 species. Experience from our forests goes to prove that this 

 is really the case. Thus, from Southern Sweden we know from 

 the researches of Dr. R. Hult in Blekinge that the spruce (except 

 in dry localities) generally extinguishes the fir. And reports by 

 Herr C. G. Holmerz and Herr Th. Ortenblad show that this 

 is also the case in Norrbotten, where "the spruce in all more 

 favoured localities wedges itself in between firs and birches, 

 and finally exterminates its predecessors in occupation." Even 

 the oak is ousted by the spruce. Prof. Elias Fries states that 

 " the spread of our noblest foliage tree is being arrested in recent 

 times. In a primaeval spruce forest, where there is no more oak 

 in the locality, I have found below an immense layer of moss 

 oak trunks of such dimensions that I doubt whether there are 

 their equal in all Sweden!" In Blekinge also similar facts have 

 been brought to light, and recently Prof. F. K. Kjellman ex- 

 pressed the opinion that "the oak flora formerly had a greater 

 extension in our country, but has been thrust aside by the 

 spruce." 



Although the spruce is victorious over some species, it is unable 

 to conquer the beech. Therefore there is little chance that the 

 spruce will take possession of our southern counties. 



In conclusion, as the result of the known palteontological 

 facts respecting the immigration of our flora, we are able to 

 express the opinion that the greatest part of the Arctic flora, as 

 the injand ice melted, immigrated from the south; and that, of 

 the various forest trees, the birch, aspen, and fir came by the 

 same road, forming the country's oldest forests. From the south, 

 too, we must assume that salix, mountain ash, mountain elm, 

 hazel, lime, with accompanying .shrubs, certain willows, guelder 

 rose, Rhxmnus frangida, Corjius sangztiiiea, ar.d the hawthorn 

 came, and from the same quarter, at a later period, the com- 

 mon ash, oak, and ivy. Furthermore, later still, the beech and 

 the hornbeam, with accompanying shrubs, came from this quarter. 

 The spruce and the beech both immigrated late, but the former 



from the east. These two forest trees are at present, in different 

 localities, the two most favoured, the beech in the south, and the 

 spruce in all other parts as far as the northern limit of coniferous 

 trees. But the contest between the different species of trees 

 is no longer undisturbed. For since man settled in the land a 

 new factor has arisen, and this factor participates both directly 

 and indirectly in the contest. Originally slight, his influence 

 has grown greater and greater, and the time may come when 

 he will be the arbiter as to the trees that are to form the forests 

 of the future. A. G. Nathorst. 



Geological Survey of Sweden. 



AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENTAL STATIONS 

 IN THE UNITED STATES. 



'T'HE following interesting information in reference to the estab- 

 ■^ lishment of agricultural experimental stations in the United 

 States is given in a memorandum recently issued by the Agri- 

 cultural Department of the Privy Council, and laid before Parlia- 

 ment. An " Office of Experiment Stations " has been instituted 

 as a special branch of the United States Department of Agri- 

 culture. For the expense in connection therewith a sum of 

 ;/^20oo was voted by Congress in 1888, to enable the Com- 

 missioner of Agriculture to carry out Section 3 of the Act of 

 Congress of March 1887, by which experimental stations were 

 established. This said section provides that, "in order to 

 secure, as far as practicable, uniformity of methods and results 

 in the work of the said stations, it shall be the duty of the 

 United States Commissioner of Agriculture to furnish forms, as 

 far as practicable, for the tabulation of results of investigation 

 or experiments ; to indicate, from time to time, such lines 

 of inquiry as to him shall te^m most important ; and in 

 general to furnish such advice and assistance as will best 

 promote the purposes of this Act. It shall be the duty of each 

 such station annually, on or before February i, to make to the 

 Governor of the State or Territory in which it is located, a full 

 and detailed report of its operation, including a statement of 

 receipts and expenditure to the said Commissioner of Agricul- 

 ture, and to the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States." 

 In 1888 an Act was passed by Congress making an appropriation 

 for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 

 30, 1889, and for other purposes, appropriating ;^i 19,000, in- 

 cluding the ){^2000 specially reserved for the Commission of 

 Agriculture, for the purpose of endowing and assisting agricul- 

 tural and experimental stations throughout the country. Besides 

 this sum, the several States have contributed ^^25,000, making 

 a total sum of ;i^i44,ooo given from public funds for the support 

 of these stations. There are now forty-six of these sta- 

 tions in the United States, so that, taking an average, each 

 station will receive over ^3000 this year. It is raid, however, 

 that several of these stations have sub-stations under them, 

 and that there are 370 trained men connected with the stations 

 in the prosecution of scientific and practical agricultural experi- 

 ments. The first agricultural experiment station in America 

 was established in 1875 in Connecticut, and the next in Cali- 

 fornia in the year following. In 1879 the well-known Cornell 

 University vStation was founded, which has done so much good 

 work, and the equally valuable VVisconsin .Station in 1883. No 

 less than twenty-six stations were founded last year, in conse- 

 quence of the inducements set forth by the Act of 1887. In a 

 recent Report as to the organization of these experimental sta- 

 tions, a list of the staff of each is given, from which list a few 

 examples may be taken to show the extent of work that is per- 

 formed, or may be performed. At the Connecticut Agricultural 

 Station there is a director who is a Master of Arts, a vice- 

 director who is a Doctor of Philosophy, and a chemist. There 

 are three other chemists who are Doctors or Bachelors of 

 Philosophy, a mycologist, and a practical farmer in charge of 

 grounds and buildings. The staff of the Dakota Station is still 

 more extensive, consisting of a director, a superintendent of the 

 farm, a superintendent df forestry and horticultural experiments, 

 an entomologist, an analytical chemist, a veterinarian, an 

 accountant and s'enogra])her, and a librarian. Upon the staff 

 of the Iowa Station there are two chemists, one for ordinary 

 and one for special work, a botanist for ordinary and special 

 work, an entomologist, a veterinarian, a horticulturist, and 

 a practical farmer. The Cornell Uiiive'^sity Station staff 

 comprises a chemist, veterinarian, botanist, and arboricul- 

 turist, a horticulturist, an entomologist, a cryplogamic botanist, 

 besides an assistant in entomology, chemistry, veterinary 



