492 



NATURE 



{Sept. 19. 1889 



periods. For it cannot be denied that our knowledge of 

 Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and even early Cainozoic climates is un- 

 satisfactory. But we may look forward to the time when much 

 of this uncertainty will disappear. Meteorologists are every day 

 acquiring a clearer conception of the distribution of atmospheric 

 pressure and temperature, and the causes by which that distribution 

 is determined, and the day is coming when we shall be better 

 able than we are now to apply this extended meteorological 

 knowledge to the explanation of the climates of former periods 

 in the world's history. One of the chief factors in the present 

 distribution of atmospheric temperature and pressure is doubtless 

 the relative position of the great land and water areas ; and if 

 this be true of the present, it must be true also of the past. It 

 would almost seem, then, as if all one had to do to ascertain tl e 

 climatic condition of any particular period was to prepare a 

 map, depicting with some approach to accuracy the former 

 relative position of land and sea. With such a map could our 

 meteorologists infer what the climatic conditions must have been ? 

 Yes, provided we could assure them that in other respects the 

 physical conditions did not differ from the present. Now, there 

 is no period in the past history of our globe the geographical 

 conditions of which are better known than the Pleistocene. 

 And yet when we have indicated these upon a map we find that 

 they do not give the results which we might have expected. 

 The climatic conditions which they seem to imply are not such 

 as we know did actually obtain. It is obvious, therefore, that 

 some additional and perhaps exceptional factor was at work 

 to produce the recognized results. What was this disturbing 

 element, and have we any evidence of its interference with the 

 operation of the normal agents of climatic change in earlier 

 periods of the world's history? We all know that various 

 answers have been given to such questions. Whether amongst 

 these the correct solution of the enigma is to be found time will 

 show. Meanwhile, as all hypothesis and theory must starve 

 without facts to feed on, it behoves us as working geologists to 

 do our best to add to the supply. The success with which 

 other problems have been attacked by geologists forbids us to 

 doubt that ere long we shall have done much to dispel some of 

 the mystery which still envelops the question of geological 

 climates. 



SECTION E. 



geography. 



Opening Address by Colonel Sir Francis de Winton, 

 K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., President of the Section. 



Geography has not inaptly been defined as " the science of 

 distributions," and from whatever aspect we view it, whether 

 from a large and comprehensive basis embracing all the condi- 

 tions which surround it as a science, or from the narrower limits 

 of simple physiography, we find certain well-defined principles, 

 or one may term them natural laws, pervading everywhere, 

 whose actions have, through their influences on the past, created 

 the present, and according to the uses we now put them must 

 largely govern the future. 



The formation of our globe, unfolded to our vision by scien- 

 tific discovery, brings us face to face with Nature in all her awful 

 grandeur ; and we learn how, under a beneficent and all-wise 

 Providence, this world has been fashioned and made for the use 

 of man during periods of time almost beyond man's calculations ; 

 and in the history of man upon earth — a mere drop in this ocean 

 of time — we read of the rise and fall of nations, of great wars, of 

 the discoveries of new routes (so ably described by my friend and 

 talented predecessor in the address delivered by him in Section 

 E last year), and we see what large and important develop 

 ments have taken place as regards the commerce and trade of 

 the world by the effect of these influences ; and then, turning 

 to more recent days, we enter upon the discovery of steam, 

 and its application as a motive power, — a discovery which has 

 given rise to extraordinary changes — changes by which the whole 

 trade of the world and its industries have been stimulated and 

 promoted. Add to this the inventions in electricity, by which 

 almost instantaneous communication has been established to all 

 parts of the globe, and we may well cease to wonder at the 

 increase that has been manifested in what may be termed the 

 motive power of the world, and the development of its larger 

 activities. 



Still the natural laws which govern this globe, in their relation 



to the science of geography, remain the same. It matters not 

 how rapidly you travel from the pole to the equator, you will 

 freeze at the one and perspire at the other ; and while passing 

 through the diff"erent zones of temperature lying between these 

 regions — the frigid, temperate, and torrid zones — you will find 

 each with its own products, varying with climate, soil, and 

 peculiarity of position, and these variations pervade the whole 

 realm of Nature. Take man as an example : with all his power 

 of brain and reason, he is largely subject to his environment. 

 Look at the toiling millions of the temperate zone, and the 

 enormous activity they display, both mental and physical. Note 

 their colour, form, nervous development ; and then pass into the 

 tropics, and the whole creature is changed : he is different in 

 colour, and displays none of the energy or brain power of the 

 white species of his kind. Why is this? It is chiefly due to the 

 environment in which the creature is living. 



The effect of climate upon race is somewhat remarkably 

 illustrated in recent times by noticing the physique and 

 nerve-power of the present race of Americans. The wonder- 

 ful tide of emigration which has raised them to being a 

 nation of 60,000,000 people may have exercised certain influ- 

 ences as regards this change ; but there are many true Americans 

 still in existence. Two hundred years ago they were the same 

 race as ourselves, but the difference between us now is marked. 

 The climate of America has given them .an individual stamp, and 

 a perceptible difference in outward semblance has shown itself 

 even in this short space of time. 



Similar changes are manifested throughout the whole animal 

 and vegetable kingdom ; and while the geologist, zoologist, 

 botanist, ethnologist, and entomologist, each and all are 

 separate branches of science, yet each and all have a common 

 ground in geography and its application to the shape and form 

 of land and sea ; to the wrinkled folds of the earth's surface 

 which we call mountains and valleys ; to the mighty ocean with 

 its currents of air and water, and the influences they exert ; to 

 the huge inland seas and lakes ; to the great rivers and small 

 streams ; to the endless varieties in the animal and vegetable 

 kingdoms ; and we find these great elements of Nature contri- 

 buting each in its own sphere to questions relating to the com- 

 merce of the world and the development of new countries. 



In this brief introduction to my paper I have designedly, 

 though very briefly, drawn your attention to the science of 

 applied geography before passing in review the most recent 

 explorations and discoveries of the present day ; and while 

 doing this, I shall endeavour to draw attention to the great 

 necessity for a more thorough study of this science, and the 

 influences it exerts upon trade and commerce, as we gain a 

 better knowledge of the products of one country and the in- 

 dustries of another, as well as the importance of such knowledge 

 to the great manufacturing centres of this nation as new countries 

 are discovered and developed. 



It must be remembered that we no longer enjoy a monopoly 

 of trade. Other nations are exhibiting large commercial ac- 

 tivities ; and if we desire a continuance of the trade of Great 

 Britain we must put our shoulders to the wheel with the same 

 energies and creative power that have produced such astonishing 

 results during the present century. 



In the paper to which I have already alluded, it was clearly 

 shown how largely the rise and fall of the great emporiums of 

 commerce in past centuries were influenced by the struggle for 

 the Eastern trade. This struggle is still going im. The Russians 

 in Central Asia are steadily advancing as each year goes by, and 

 developing that system of absorption which has characterized 

 their policy, especially in that region. Central Asia is the 

 chosen field of their explorers, and the recent decease of General 

 Prjevalsky has been a great loss in the scientific world. A full 

 account of his remarkable discoveries and explorations appeared 

 in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, 



The principal work accomplished by the latest Russian 

 explorers, Messrs. Grombchevski, Mr. Lidsky, and Mr. Grum- 

 Grijmailo, in Central Asia have been in the region of the Pamir, 

 and from thence across the Hindu Kush into Hunza. Also in 

 Eastern Bokhara and in the upper waters of the Yarkand River, 

 the Kalik Pass, and Kanjat. In the prosecution of these 

 researches, which are all dangerously near our Indian fron- 

 tier, very full reports are made, more especially rs regards 

 trade and commerce ; and there is no doubt, < ince the 

 completion of the Transcaspian railway to Samarcand, a great 

 impetus has been given to Russian trade in Central Asia, 

 even extending, by well-known routes, as far as the north- 



