6oo 



NATURE 



\Oct. 17, 1889 



examining bodies. Its general adoption must therefore depend 

 on their co-operation. 



Suggestions for a Course of Elementary Instruction in Physical 

 Science, drawn np by Prof. Armstrong, 

 Although the Committee is ostensibly charged to report as to 

 methods of teaching chemistry, chemistry pure and simple is 

 not what is required in schools generally, and therefore the 

 Committee must be prepared to take into consideration and 

 make recommendations as to a course of instruction preliminary 

 to the natural science course proper, which in their opinion 

 affords the most suitable and efficient preparation for later 

 natural science studies. 



After the most careful consideration of the question during at 

 least ten years past, and after long holding the opinion that 

 chemistry as usually understood is not the most suitable science 

 subject for school purposes, I am now of opinion that a course 

 which is mainly chemical is not only the best but also the only 

 one possible if we are to secure all the objects aimed at in 

 introducing science teaching into schools. Those objects are 

 essentially : to train boys and girls to use their brains ; to train 

 their intelligence ; to make them observing and reasoning beings, 

 accurate observers, and accurate thinkers ; to teach them to 

 experiment, and that, too, always with an object — more fre- 

 quently than not with what may be termed a logical object — not 

 for mere descriptive purposes ; to gradually inculcate the power 

 of "doing," on which Charles Kingsley has laid so much 

 stress, and which undoubtedly is the main factor of success in 

 life. It can scarcely be gainsaid that through chemistry more 

 than through any other branch of natural science it is possible 

 to give precisely that kind of "practical" training so requisite 

 at the present day, because the student is able to ascertain by 

 experiment what are the exact facts, and thus to arrive in- 

 dependently at an explanation, whereas in the case of other 

 sciences more often than not the explanation of necessity has to 

 be given by the teacher. 



Chemistry as usually taught loses greatly in educational value 

 because pupils are told, more often than not, that " so and so is 

 the case," instead of being taught hoxu it has been found out 

 that such is the case ; indeed, that which has to be proved is 

 usually taken for granted. Practical chemistry has hitherto, as 

 a rule, been interpreted to mean the preparation of a few gases, 

 &c., and the analysis of simple salts. Much useful information 

 may be and is occasionally imparted during the performance of 

 exercises of this kind, but the tendency undoubtedly is for 

 analysis to degenerate into a mechanical drill, and, looking at 

 the question from the practical point of view, and considering 

 what is the general outcome of such teaching, probably we are 

 bound to agree that the results thus far obtained are usually un- 

 satisfactory. The difticulty, however, is to devise a course 

 sufficiently simple both in conception and when carried into 

 practice the cost of which is not too great ; but with respect to 

 this item of cost the Committee has to make clear to parents 

 and teachers the claim of natural science to a fair and propor- 

 tionate share of the total expenditure, which certainly has never 

 yet been granted to it. By the introduction of such studies into 

 the school course, a set of faculties are trained which it is all- 

 important to develop, but which hitherto have been allowed to 

 remain dormant, if not to atrophy, through neglect, and which, 

 it is admitted by all competent authorities, cannot possibly be 

 developed by any amount of attention paid to literary and 

 mathematical studies. It is often not sufficiently clearly stated 

 or understood that the advocates of natural science studies have 

 no desire to displace any of the traditional subjects from the 

 school course, and that all that they ask for is a fair share of the 

 child's time, attention, and brains — a share proportionate to the 

 effect which such studies can demonstrably produce in developing 

 the mental faculties of the individual : that, in fact, natural 

 science claims to co-operate and in no sense puts in an 

 appearance as a rival. 



Stage I. — Lessons on common and familiar objects. 



The first stage of instruction must be one of simple object- 

 lessons, but these should have an intimate relation to the child's 

 surroundings, and should be made the pegs on which to hang 

 many a tale. Probably the most satisfactory and practicil mode 

 of commencing is to get children to draw up lists of familiar and 

 common objects under various heads, such as 



Natural objects. 



Things used in building construction. 



Things from which household furniture is made or which are 

 in daily use. 



Things used as clothing. 



Food materials. 



The children should be induced to describe these from obser- 

 vation as far as possible ; to classify them according to their 

 origin into mineral and animal and vegetable or organic ; and 

 occasion should be taken at this stage to give by means of 

 reading lessons and demonstrations as much information as 

 possible about the different things, their origin, how made, and 

 their uses. It is obvious that in this way a great deal of 

 geography and natural history {Naturkunde) might be taught in 

 an attractive manner. Geikie's "Science Primer on Physical 

 Geography " is the type of book which may be worked through 

 with great advantage at this stage. 



Stage II. — Lessons in measurement. 



This stage should be entered upon as soon as children have 

 learnt the simple rules of arithmetic, and are able to add, sub- 

 tract, multiply, and divide, and to use decimals. 



Lineal measurements may be first made, using both an 

 English foot-rule with the inch subdivided in various ways and 

 a metric rule subdivided into millimetres. In this way the 

 relation of the two scales i^ soon insensibly learnt. 



Measurements of rectangular figures and the calculation of 

 their areas may then be made. 



After this the use of the balance may be taught, and the rela- 

 tion between the English and French systems may be learnt by 

 weighing the same objects with the two kinds of weights. Use 

 may then be m.ade of the balance in determining the areas 

 of irregular figures by catting out rectangular and irregular 

 figures from the same cardboard or thin sheet metal, and 

 weighing these, &c. 



Solid figures are next studied : a number of cubes made from 

 the same wood having been measured, their volumes are then 

 calculated, and the results thus obtained are compared with 

 those which are obtained on weighing the cubes. l"he dimen- 

 sions and weights of cubes made from different woods or other 

 materials are then ascertained, and thus it is observed that 

 different materials differ in density. The study of the relative 

 density of things generally is then entered upon. The ordinary 

 method is easily learnt and used by children, a suitable bottle 

 being provided by filing a nick down the stopper of a common 

 two-ounce narrow-mouth bottle ; it may then be shown that the 

 same results are obtained by the hydrostatic method of weigh- 

 ing in air and water, and it is not difficult to lead children to 

 understand this latter method after they have determined the 

 heights of balancing columns of liquids, such as turpentine, 

 water and saturated brine, of which they have previously 

 ascertained the relative density. These hydrostatic experiments 

 are of value at a later stage in considering the effects of atmo- 

 spheric pressure. 



By determining the dimensions of a cube and the weight of 

 the water which it will displace, an opportunity is afforded to 

 point out that if the results are expressed in cubic centimetres 

 and grammes respectively there is a practical agreement between 

 the numbers, and hence, to explain the origin of the metric 

 system of weights and the relationship between its measures and 

 weights ; the irrationality of the Ehglish system may then be 

 explained. 



The relative densities of a large number of common substances 

 having being ascertained, the results may be tabulated and then 

 the value of the data as criteria may be insisted on ; as an 

 illustration of their value, quartz, flint, sand, and gravel pebbles 

 may be selected. The children having determined their relative 

 densities, the agreement between the results may be pointed out 

 and the identity of the material explained. By drawing per- 

 pendiculars corresponding in height to the densities of various 

 substances, a graphic representation is obtained which serves to, 

 bring out the value of the graphic method of representation. 



A very valuable exercise to introduce at this stage is based on 

 the well-known fact that in certain conditions of the atmosphere 

 things appear moist ; a muslin bag full of seaweed may be hung 

 up under cover but freely exposed, and may then be weighed 

 daily at a given time ; simultaneously the state of the weather, 

 direclion of the wind, the height of the barometer, and the wet 

 and dry bulb thermometer may be noted ; on tabulating the 

 results, and especially if the graphic method be employed, the 

 variations and their relationship will be noticeable. 



The thermometer, having thus become a familiar instrument, 



I 



