Feb. 20, 1890] 



NATURE 



365 



THE HUMAN FOOT. 

 The Human Foot : its Form and Structure, Functions 

 and Clothitig. By Thos. S. Ellis. (London : J. and A. 

 Churchill, 1889.) 



THIS book is an endeavour on the part of a practical 

 surgeon to explain the mechanical construction of 

 the human foot, and from this basis to show the prin- 

 ciples on which boots and shoes ought to be constructed. 

 Although written in a popular form, and intended for the 

 instruction of the public, it is treated in a scientific spirit 

 by one who is competent, on the ground of anatomical 

 knowledge, to discuss the subject. Mr. Ellis was led to 

 give special attention to the mechanism of the foot 

 owing to one of his feet having been accidentally injured ; 

 and his recovery from lameness was due to the indepen- 

 dent study which he was obliged to give to the structure 

 of the foot in relation to its functions. 



The earlier pages of the book are occupied by a short 

 but clearly-written description of the form of the foot, 

 and of so much of its anatomy as is needed to explain its 

 mechanism. In the course of this description the author 

 points out that the two feet are to be considered together, 

 not as if they were two independent pedestals, or plinths, 

 supporting the lower limbs and body, but as the two 

 halves of one pedestal or plinth, the divisions of which 

 are separated from each other. He recognizes the inner 

 margin of the foot in its front or expanded part as form- 

 ing a straight line, whilst the outer margin forms a bold 

 curve, and acts as a sort of buttress to the main structure 

 of the foot. The inner margin also is elevated to form 

 the arch of the instep. He refers to Prof. Meyer's well- 

 known line continued backwards from the mid-line of 

 the great toe through a central point of the heel which 

 follows the line of the long flexor of the great toe, and 

 states that this line corresponds with the highest part of 

 the ridge on the dorsum or upper surface of the foot, 

 which indicates the course of the long extensor of the 

 great toe. 



The importance of the great toe in the construction of 

 the foot is dwelt upon by Mr. Ellis. He shows that, when 

 the foot is used as the basis from which the body is to be 

 propelled forwards in the act of progression, the great toe 

 leaves its fellows and passes towards the mesial plane 

 between the two feet, but that it is not bent in so doing. 

 On the other hand, the smaller toes, whilst being pressed 

 against the ground, become bent, and the phalangeal 

 joints are lifted upwards. 



The relative length of the great and second toes is also 

 discussed. As is well known, in many of the statues of 

 ancient art the second toe is modelled somewhat longer 

 than the great toe, but as a rule in nature itself the great 

 toe is the longer. Exceptions, however, occasionally 

 occur. The writer of this notice has now before him the 

 casts of two well-formed feet, from a man and a woman, 

 in both of which the second toe projects beyond the great 

 toe. He has also in his possession casts of the feet of 

 several of the aborigines of Australia, taken under the 

 superintendence of Prof. Anderson Stuart, of the Uni- 

 versity of Sydney, in which interesting variations in the 

 relative length of these toes may be seen. In a man and 

 one woman the great toe is longer than the second ; in 

 another woman the second toe in the right foot is longer 



than the first, but in the left foot the opposite is the case. 

 In an Australian boy, aged 4, in the right foot the great 

 toe is slightly the longer, but in the left foot the second 

 toe has the advantage. In none of these Australians had 

 the feet ever worn shoes, so that the variation in the 

 length of these toes is natural, and not produced by arti- 

 ficial means. It would appear, therefore — as was shown 

 several years ago by Prof. Ecker, of Freiburg, and by a 

 writer in NATURE, to be the case in the hand with the 

 ring and index finger— that variations in relative length 

 may occur, not only in different individuals, but in 

 opposite limbs in the same person. 



The author then discusses the movements at the joints 

 of the foot and the action of the muscles ; more especially 

 when the heel is raised and the foot rests on tip-toe as 

 in the movements of progression. He regards the long 

 flexor of the hallux as exercising a bow-string or tie-rod 

 influence, bracing up the arch and diminishing the dis- 

 tance between the heel and the great toe. Hence the 

 exercise of dancing is one of the most important means 

 of promoting and maintaining the strength of the foot. As 

 regards the act of walking, Mr. Ellis contends that what 

 he calls the "four-square position," in which the inner 

 borders of the great toes are retained almost parallel to 

 each other, is that which is most conducive to steady and 

 continuous progression, for the joints and muscles of the 

 foot obtain through it momentary rest in the intervals 

 between the steps. He condemns the military position, 

 with the toes turned outwards, both in standing and 

 walking, as much more fatiguing, by keeping the muscles 

 and joints in a constant strain. The condition of 

 " flat-foot " ought never to arise if the tie-rod action of 

 the long flexor muscles of the toes be sufficiently exercised 

 by frequent springing of the foot to tip-toe, such as takes 

 place in the act of dancing. 



The author applies the anatomical principles which he 

 has expounded to the construction of stockings and 

 shoes. He holds that quite as much mischief is done to 

 the feet by wearing ill-made socks as badly-shaped shoes. 

 He considers that a stocking with a separate stall for the 

 great toe is always desirable, but that a straight inside 

 line is imperative. To obtain a properly fitting boot it is 

 necessary, in addition to the measures of length and girth, 

 to have the contour lines of the foot, and to obtain these 

 the author has devised a foot-stand or pedistat, a de- 

 scription and figure of which are given in the book. From 

 these measures a last can be made which conforms to the 

 shape of the foot throughout as it stands on a level surface. 



We recommend the perusal of this book to all who are 

 interested in the mechanism of the foot, and in obtaining 

 for it well-fitting socks and shoes ; and we do so with the 

 more confidence as the author had obviously passed 

 through a painful experience before he had satisfied him- 

 self of the principles which ought to be attended to in the 

 construction of its clothing. 



OUR BOOK SHELF. 



Das australiscJte Florenelevient in Europa. Von Ur. 



Constantin Freiherr von Ettingshausen. Pp. 10. Tab. 



I. (Graz : Leuschner and Lubensky, 1890.) 

 This is a defence of the identification of fossil plants from 

 the Tertiary beds of Europe, chiefly from Austria and 



