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ITALY. 



ITALY. 



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peninsula. The tracts of level country, with the exception of the 

 Roman Campagna and the plains of Foggia and Campania, are of 

 inconsiderable extent, and the peninsula may be viewed as determined 

 in its chief physical feature.? by the long mountain range which 

 traverses it in its whole length. [Apennines.] The Tuscan Apen- 

 nines, after running in a direction east-southeast to within a few 

 miles of the Adriatic near Rimini, make a bend to the south-south- 

 east, and run parallel to and near the Adriatic coast, towards which 

 they detach numerous offsets which terminate abruptly on the sea, 

 whilst towards the Mediterranean the slope of the ground is much 

 more gradual, the offsets or secondary ridges running more obliquely 

 to the coa.st, and forming considerable longitudinal valleys. The larger 

 rivers of the peninsula are on the western side, and the principal 

 basins are those of the Amo, the Tiber, the Garigliano, and the 

 Voltumo. [Abbczzo ; Abno ; Campagna di Rosia ; Papal Statk&] 

 In the neighbourhood of Isemia, between the sources of the Voltumo 

 and those of the Sangro, the main ridge of the Apennines b .gins to 

 run more in the centre of the peniu'tula, leaving to the east the vast 

 plain of Foggia [Capitanata ], and to the west the plains of Campania. 

 [Lavobo, Terba oi.] Farther south, near the sources of the Ofanto, 

 two ridges detach themselves from the main group, one of which runs 

 eastward through the Messapian peninsula, and the other westward 

 through the peninsula of Sorrento to Cape Campanella. The central 

 chain continues to run southward between the basin of the Sele on 

 one aide, and those of the Bradano and Basiento on the other. 

 [Basilicata.] It then runs through Calabria, keeping however nearer 

 to the western than to the eastern coast, but occupying with its 

 offsets nearly the whole breadth of that part of the peninsula. 

 [Calabbia.] 



Northern Italy includes the Sardinian states, Lombardy, Parma, 

 Modena, the Veni-tian territories, Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romagna. 

 Soathern Italy includes Tuscany, the greater part of the Papal States, 

 and the kingdom of Naples. With regard to climate and aspect, the 

 narrow strip called the Riviera of Qenoa, which stretches between the 

 Apennines and the sea, may be included in Southern Italy. The 

 islands of Sicily and Sardinia, and several minor ones near the coast, 

 belong to Italy. A general view of the surface and geology of Italy 

 is given in the article Apennine.s. 



The climates of North and South Italy are very different. In the 

 north frosts and snow are of common occurrence in winter, and 

 delicate plants, such as the orange and the lemon, do not thrive 

 except in sheltered situations ; but in the south, especially near the 

 aea-coaat, tender plants thrive in the open air, and in the southei-n- 

 mo«t part of the peninsula, as well as in Sicily, even tropical plants, 

 anch as the sugar-cane, the cotton-plant, the Indian fig, and the datn- 

 palm, come to maturity. The vine grows all over Italy, but the best 

 wines are m^ide in the south. The high Apennine r-gions however 

 are bleak and cold even in the south, and as they are hardly anywhere 

 much farther than a day's journey from the coast, there is great 

 variety of climate in the peninsula. The staple products of Italy are 

 com, rice, wine, oil, silk, and fruits of every kind, and the mountains 

 afford summer pasture for the cattle. In the north a careful system 

 of irrigation prevails, especially in Piedmont and Lombardy, but the 

 ■oathem parts are subject to droughts in summer. The rivers which 

 Iiave their sources in the Alps or in the higher Apennines are 

 perennial, whilst the other streams are mostly dry in summer. The 

 atmosphere is remarkably clear, especiilly all along the coast of the 

 Mediterranean, and the tints of the mountains and of the clouds are 

 beautifully warm. Italy is emphatically the land of painting, of 

 melody, and of poetry. The scenery of the Bay of Naples, of the 

 Straits of Hessina, and of the Riviera of Qenoa, is unrivalled in the 

 •world. 



UiMory. -The name ' Italia' appears to have been limited in remote 

 times to the most southern part of the peninsula as determined by a 

 line drawn from Tarentum to Posidonia (Herodotus, i. 24 ; Dionysius, 

 L 73) ; and indeed its boundaries were once even more contracted. 

 In the age of Timaeus (about B.C. 264) it stretched as far north as the 

 Tiber, and beyond Piccnum. Until the time of Augustus, Italia 

 Proper was understood to extend only as far as the Rubicon on one 

 ride and the Hacra on the other ; the rest was called Cisalpine Qaul, 

 the country of the Veneti, and Liguria. 



The history of ancient Italy, as a whole, is a part of the history of 

 Rome ; and sketches of the history of the several ancient divisions, 

 ■uch as Etniria and others, requiring a separate consideraMon, are 

 given in the articles Apolia, Cahpania, Etburia, Aa The period 

 that elapsed after the fall of the Western Empire is noticed in the 

 wticKs Bklisarius, Lokoobards, and Theodorio, in the Historical 

 and Biographical division of the English Cyclopaedia. 



The modem history of Italy begins properly with the reign of 

 Charlemagne, who was crowned king of the Romans and emperor of 

 tha West in the year 800. Under the weak rule of his successors, 

 the oonnts, marquises, and other great feudatories of the new Western 

 empire became, de fkcto, independent, and Italy waa parcelled out 

 into numerous principalities or states. As the principal towns rose 

 in population and wealth they made themselves independent of the 

 feuflatories, and formed so many commonwealths. Then came innu- 

 merable qaarrels between the towns and the great lords ; of the towns 

 among themselvM ; of the lords with one another ; and last of all, 



of part of both towns and lords against the kings of Germany, who 

 styled themselves the successors of Charlemagne, and assumed the 

 often merely nominal title of kings of Italy and emperors of the West. 

 In the midst of all this confusion some considerable states were formed, 

 such as the Papal State, the kingdom of Sicily and Apulia under the 

 Normans, the republics of Venice, Florence, and Genoa, and lastly 

 the duchy of Milan. The dukes of Savoy, originally a transalpine 

 dynasty, also acquired large possessions on the south side of the Alps. 

 Here we have the origin of the present Italian states. A general 

 history of modem Italy is a most intricate and unmanageable subject ; 

 sketches of the history of the various states are given in the articles 

 Flobence, Genoa, Sicily, Venice, &c. 



At the beginning of the 16th century Charles V. established by 

 conquest the dominion of the house of Austria over the duchy of 

 Milan and over the kingdoms of Naples snd Sicily, which dominion 

 on bis abdication he gave up to his son Philip II. and his successors 

 of the Spanish branch of the house of Austria. Spain continued to 

 rule these fin<! territories till the beginning of the 18th century, when 

 by the extinction of the Spanish branch of the house of Austria, 

 Lombardy was transferred to the German branch of the same house, 

 and Naples and Sicily were formed into an independent kingdom 

 under a Spanish infante. The duke of Savoy at the same time assumed 

 the title of k ing of Sardinia. The work of amalgamation, consolidation, 

 and national independence in Italy made great proRress during the 

 18th century. Venice, Tuscany, Genoa, the Sardinian monarchy, 

 Naples and Sicily, figured among the sovereign states of Europe, while 

 the only part possessed by a foreign power was Lombardy. Tho 

 French revolution and subsequent invasion of Italy deranged this 

 order of things. Under the pretence of establishing republics the 

 French exereised a military sway over Italy, whilst Venice disappeared 

 from the list of sovereign states and became an Austrian province. 

 Napoleon, having become emperor, formed a kingdom of Italy, which 

 however did not include one-third of Itily : he annexed another third 

 to the French empire, and gave Naples to his brother-in-law Murat. 

 In 1814 the French evacuated Italy, and the former states were 

 restored, with the exception of Venice, which remained under Austria. 

 Genoa was annexed to the Sardinian monarchy, which kingdom and 

 that of the Two Sicilies are now the two principal Italian powera: 

 the Papal States and Tuscany are the two next in importance. Several 

 little territories and jurisdictions on the coast and the iKland of Elba 

 were annexed to Tuscany ; and it was also stipulated that on the 

 demise of Maria Louisa, duchess of Parma, the duke of Lucca should 

 succeed to her states, and Lucca should . be annexed to Tuscany. 

 Upon the whole, therefore, the work of amalgamation made progress 

 in the earlier part of the present century. 



The desire for still greater unity however continued to gain strength 

 among educated Italians, particularly the younger ones, and the 

 feeling was kept alive and stimulated by patriotic appeals, both in 

 verse and prose, of remarkable eloquence and fervour. Secret societies 

 were organised, with branches in almost every city, and all was care- 

 fully prepared for a general rising, with a view in the first place to 

 effect the expulsion of the Austrians, but also directed against the more 

 despotic of the native princes. Partial risings occurred in some of 

 the larger cities about the close of 1847 and commencement of 1848. 

 At the end of January 1848 Palermo and tha other principal towns of 

 Sicily were in open insurrection against the king of Naples. The 

 Italian rulers showed an inclination to conciliate their subjects. The 

 Sicilians obtained a renewal of their constitution ; the grand duke of 

 Tuscany granted a representative government to his states ; aud the 

 king of Sardinia issued a proclamation containing the basis of a 

 liberal constitution. But the news of the successful revolution in 

 France, followed immediately by an insurrection in Milan, and the 

 flight from that city of the Austrian viceroy and his troops, produced 

 a general ferment, which was not a little increased when Carlo Alberto, 

 the 'liberal' king of Sardinia issued a proclamation (March 23rd) in 

 which he openly espoused the cause of Italian nationality ; and 

 followed it up by sending his army across the boundary of Lombardy. 

 This was of course a declaration of war against Austria, in which all 

 Italy may be said to have joined. In the first encounter at Goito on 

 the 29th of May, the Austrians, after a battle which lasted two days, 

 were entirely defeated by the Sardinian army commanded by king 

 Carlo Alberto, and forced to retreat hastily. But the Italian successes 

 were soon checked. Field-marshal Radetsky, the commander-in-chief 

 of the Austrian army in Italy, after bombarding Vieenzafor 18 hours, 

 forced it to capitulate, and quickly regained possession of the whole 

 of the Venetian territory, except the city of S'enice, which he closely 

 blockaded. He then with the main body of his force.s followed the 

 Sardinian troops, whom after a protracted resistance he forced to 

 capitulate. Meanwhile the struggle between the rulers and their 

 subjects had been fiercely fought in Naples and Rome : and when tha 

 year 1848 closed, all Italy was in a state of open or concealed revolt. 

 Between Austria and Sardinia an armistice had indeed been concluded, 

 but by both parties it was re','arded as one of those hollow truces 

 useful only as a means of preparing without molestation for a future 

 campaign : Austria however held possession of only a portion of her 

 Italian territories, but the Imperial troops were being brought into a 

 condition of the highest efficiency. In Naples the struggle hud so far 

 proved on the whole favourable to the king. In Rome the popular 



