490 



NATURE 



[Mai^ck 2 2, 1888 



the section. After removing the superficial folded layer, 

 the paper covering the lower bed was found to be covered 

 with minute corrugations like those often seen on beds 

 of mica-schist. On stripping off the paper, and again 



stretching the elastic substratum, the clay adhering to it 

 did not become smoothed down to its original form, but 

 split along a multitude of vertical rents, transverse to the 

 direction of pressure, each of which corresponded to one 



Section at head of Loch Eriholl. 



of the little ripples on the paper before it was removed. 

 The sides of the cracks were observed to be covered with 

 minute vertical striations like the slickensides of a fault- 

 fissure. 



This experiment, the author suggests, may explain the 

 vertical cleavage and fohation found in the deep-seated 

 parts of many old mountain-systems. 



SWISS FOREST LA WS. 



'T'HE Report of Mr. Conway Thornton to the Foreign 

 -*• Office, on the Swiss Forest Laws, is a careful and 

 interesting piece of work. He divides his subject into 

 two parts : in the first he treats of the history of forestry 

 prior to 1875, the year in which the Act now in force, the 

 Forestry Act of 1875, was proposed; and in the second 

 part he deals with that Act, its provisions and its effects, 

 and the measures taken under the " R^glement d'Execu- 

 tion," which followed the Act, for the advancement of 

 technical education amongst foresters in Switzerland. It 

 is evident that from a very early date the various cantons 

 endeavoured to preserve the forests. Thus, in 13 14 the 

 authorities of Zurich forbade " the felling, floating, or 

 selling" of timber from the Sihlvvald ; in 1339, Schwyz 

 forbade charcoal-burning near the chief towns of the 

 canton, and a similar decree was promulgated in Fri- 

 bourg in 1438. Industries using wood were in various 

 cantons restricted in their operations ; the laying out of 

 new vineyards was prohibited under heavy penalties for 

 centuries ; and finally, during last century, the use of 

 uncloven vine-props was forbidden. The exportation of 

 timber took place only under great difficulties, and even 

 the removal of timber from one place to another in 

 Switzerland was, until 1848, very much restricted. In 

 1376, Zurich forbade clearings to be laid down in pasture, 

 and Fribourg would not allow sheep-pastures to be estab- 

 lished in clearings. Goats were not permitted to be let 

 loose in the woods ; and rosin-scrapers were excluded 

 from many of the forests. None of these numerous 

 decrees appear to have had much effect, the very number 

 of them testifying to their powerlessness to check the 

 evil. In many cases the general prohibition against 

 wood-cutting gave way to a partial permission, as, for 

 example, in Zurich, where the number felled was not per- 

 mitted to exceed a stated total. This instance of Zurich 

 gives us the first scientific treatment of the question, when 

 the felling of the Sihlwald and other woods in the four- 

 teenth century was regulated both as to the amount and 

 the system of cutting. 



In 1702, prior to which date attention was paid solely 

 to the maintenance and protection of the timber, the 

 Government appointed a Commission to inquire how the 

 forests might be best preserved, enlarged, and improved ; 

 and subsequently issued a decree carrying the recom- 



mendations of the Commission into effect. In 1725, 

 Berne followed the example of Zurich, and published 

 forestry orders, which, like those of the latter, contained 

 directions for the cultivation of timber and for permanent 

 improvements. Similarly, in other cantons, improved 

 systems were introduced; thus, in Fiibourg, the com- 

 pulsory planting of marshy meadow-land was decreed ; 

 in Lucerne a season was set apart for felling, the growth 

 of oaks was recommended, and the formation of clearings 

 was forbidden. In 1755 an excellent forestry code was 

 drawn up by Joseph Wilhelm, Prince-Bishop of Bale. 

 About 1760, two scientific Societies — the Physical So- 

 ciety of Zurich and the Economical Society of Berne — 

 made great efforts to introduce improved knowledge of 

 woodcraft into Switzerland, and with this object they made 

 strong representations to their respective Governments, 

 and the Forestry Decrees of 1773 and 1786 were the results 

 of their interference. The substance of these decrees 

 may be stated to be the surveying of forests, the appoint- 

 ment of officials who would supervise planting, experi- 

 ment on exotics, and help in teaching a more scientific 

 system of wood-cutting. By means of these measures 

 some real progress was made, which, however, was stopped 

 by the general confusion during the beginning of this 

 century ; but, immediately peace was restored, the Hel- 

 vetic Government turned their attention again to the 

 forests, which by this time had suffered severely. Soleure 

 was the first to start a system under which technical in- 

 struction, chiefly in forestry and geometrical surveying, 

 was given to two citizens from each woodland district, 

 the better qualified being chosen foresters. From this 

 time until 1830, forest laws were drawn up univers- 

 ally, prescribing the modes in which timber was to be 

 felled. Zug, in 1821, tried to give an increased value 

 to her forests by endeavouring to extend scientific teach- 

 ing among the people. In consequence of the disastrous 

 floods in Switzerland in 1830, from this time we find that 

 forest laws were more generally enacted and more rigidly 

 enforced than they had ever been before. The number 

 of officials was increased, and great attention was paid 

 to their training. In fact, the spread of the science of 

 forestry in Switzerland dates from this period. At first 

 the people thwarted the officials in every way, but, be- 

 coming gradually enlightened as to the utility of the 

 Government measures, they ceased from actual oppo- 

 sition. Even the most backward of the cantons began 



