41 6 Animal Life and Intelligence. 



tion of the activities to special circumstances, we have the 

 activities which we term " intelligent ; " and here again the 

 activities are sometimes divided into two classes, answering 

 respectively to the reflex and the automatic, but on a 

 higher plane, according as they are responsive to stimuli 

 coming more or less directly from without, or spontaneous 

 and taking their origin from within. But it is probably 

 rather the remoteness and indirectness of the responsive 

 element than its absence that characterizes these spon- 

 taneous activities. 



v Another classification of activities is into voluntary and 

 involuntary. Voluntary actions are consciously performed 

 for the attainment of some more or less definite end or 

 object. Involuntary actions, though they may be accom- 

 panied by consciousness, and though they may be apparently 

 purposive, are performed without intention. Notwith- 

 standing the conscious element, they may, perhaps, be 

 regarded as rather physiological than psychological. The 

 simple vital activities belong to this class. But some are 

 much more complex. If, when I am watching the cobra at 

 the Zoo, it suddenly strikes at the glass near my face, I 

 involuntarily start back. The action is apparently pur- 

 posive, that is to say, an observer of the action would 

 perceive that it was performed for a definite end, the 

 removal from danger ; it is also accompanied by conscious- 

 ness ; but it is unintentional, no representation of the end 

 to be gained or the action to be performed being at the 

 moment of action framed by the mind. On the other 

 hand, if I perform a voluntary act, such as selecting and 

 lighting a cigar, there is first a desire or motive directed 

 to a certain end in view, involving an ill-defined representa- 

 tion of the means by which that end may be achieved ; 

 and this is followed by the fulfilment of the desire through 

 the application of the means to the performance of the act. 

 In the carrying out of voluntary activities, then, both 

 perception and emotional appetence are involved. There 

 are construction and reconstruction, memory and antici- 

 pation, and interwoven therewith the motive elements of 



