426 



PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT. 



for systematic unity and completeness. On the other 

 side, whatever of theoretical and systematic philosophy 

 existed in this country, stood in close connection with 

 the practical interests and the social demands of the 



In France the teaching of philosophy had to accom- 

 modate itself to the demands of the higher schools, 

 which were, at that time, under the influence of the 

 clergy. 1 



1 On this point see the account 

 given by M. Ribot in the year 

 1877 (' Mind,' vol. ii. p. 382 sqq.) 

 "The Courses at the Lyc6es and 

 Colleges (secondary instruction) are 

 much less free than those of the 

 Faculties (superior instruction), 

 since they are not addressed to 

 men but to youths preparing for 

 an examination, and must besides 

 keep within the one programme 

 drawn up for the whole country. 

 The professor is closely watched 

 by the Faculties, the State, the 

 bishops, and the families. Thus 

 an official philosophy is formed 

 which is rigorously orthodox. It 

 has unvarying solutions for all 

 problems, a fixed number of proofs 

 of the existence of God and of the 

 immortality of the Soul, &c., &c. ; 

 a student who does not answer in 

 conformity with the programme is 

 rejected. The consequence is that 

 many think one thing and say an- 

 other. I must add that the same 

 is often true of their masters, 

 though it is only fair to acknow- 

 ledge that latterly many young pro- 

 fessors have endeavoured to intro- 

 duce the new doctrines under the 

 form of historical expositions and 

 discussions. Many of the students 

 in our Lyc6es know something of 

 the Logic of Stuart Mill and of the 

 Psychology of Bain and Spencer, 

 but the heads of Spiritualism are 



little in favour of these innovations. 

 Spiritualism, such is, in fact, the 

 name of this official philosophy. It 

 would be useless to dwell at length 

 on this doctrine which has reigned 

 amongst us for fifty years, and 

 which consists in a collection of 

 opinions founded on common-sense, 

 and adapted to the religious beliefs 

 of the majority. If we extract 

 from the different religions subsist- 

 ing in Europe the common basis 

 that is called Deism or natural 

 religion, and deduce from this 

 Deism the theology, the morals, and 

 the psychology which it involves, 

 we shall have Spiritualism ; the rest 

 is only matter of detail. It is a 

 timorous, a fearful doctrine, that 

 abhors all disturbance, and is very 

 compliant to the clergy ; many of 

 its supporters are avowed Catholics " 

 (p. 384). Those who are interested 

 to see the difficulties of steering a 

 middle course between Roman 

 Catholicism on the one side and 

 German Idealism on the other, re- 

 sulting in a species of Cartesianism, 

 should read the ' Life of Victor 

 Cousin,' by Barthelemy-Saint Hil- 

 aire (3 vols., 1895). In his in- 

 teresting ' Rapport,' already re- 

 ferred to, M. Ravaisson said, in 

 the year 1868, somewhat propheti- 

 cally : " A bien des signes, il est 

 permis de prevoir comme peu eloig- 

 ne"e une e'poque philosophique done 



