362 SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURE. Part II. 



with steel. The handle ought to be perfectly cylindrical, as in using it one hand slides 

 along it from the end next the operator towards the head. There are several varieties ; 

 tlie first the pick, with the ends of the head pointed, used for loosening hard ground, 

 gravel, &c. ; the second, the pick axe, with the ends wedge-shaped in reversed positions, 

 used in digging up trees ; the third, the grubber, for grubbing up heath or small brush- 

 wood ; and there are also the road pick, and some others. 



2376. The spade consists of two parts, the handle of ash, generally about two feet 

 nine inches long, and the blade of plate iron. There are several varieties; K with a 

 curved outline to the extremity of the blade, by which it may be made to enter a stiff 

 soil with less power ; 2. with a perforated blade, which in adhesive soils frees itself better 

 from earth in the using ; 3. witii a sub-semicylindrical blade, which enters a stiff soil 

 easier than the common form, is much stronger as a lever, and also frees itself well from 

 tlie spitful of earth : this variety is what canal diggers chiefly use, and is called by them 

 a grafting tool. There are other varieties and subvarieties used in draining, and for 

 particular purposes ; which will be noticed at the proper place. 



2377. The shovel differs from the spade in being made with a broader and thinner 

 blade ; its use being to lift, rather than cut and separate. There are several varieties 

 differing in the form and magnitude of the blade. One variety, the barn shovel, has the 

 blade generally of wood, sometimes edged with iron. 



2378. The turf-spade consists of a cordate or scutiform blade, joined to a handle by a 

 kneed or bent iron shank. It is used for cutting turf from pastures, and in removing 

 ant-hills and other inequalities. A thin section is first removed, then the protuberance 

 of earth is taken out and the section replaced, 

 which, cut thin, and especially on the edges, 

 readily refits ; and the operation is finished with 

 gentle pressure by the foot, back of the spade, 

 or roller. One variety {Jig. 250. ) has one edge 

 turned up, and is preferable where the turfs are 

 to be cut square-edged and somewhat thick. 



2379. The fork is of several kinds ; the dung-fork for working in littery dung, con- 

 sisting of a handle like that of the shovel, and three or more prongs instead of a blade ; 

 the hay or pitch-fork, for working with sheaves of corn or straw or hay, consisting of a 

 long handle and two prongs ; and the wooden fork consisting of a shoot of willow, ash, 

 or other young tree or sapling, forked at the extremity, barked and formed into a rude 

 fork, sometimes used in hay-making, and similar operations. The prongs of forks to 

 take up loose materials should be made square ; those for sheaves or more compact mat- 

 ters or very littery dung, will work easiest when the prongs are round-. 



2380. The rake used in agriculture is of two kinds, the hay-rake and the corn-rake. 

 Both consist of a handle and head set with teeth ; in the corn rake these are generally of 

 iron. The garden-rake is sometimes used for covering small seeds. 



2381. The hay-rake is usually made of willow that it may be light and easy to work ; 

 and the teeth should be short, otherwise they are apt to pull up the stubble or roots of 

 the grass in raking. Sometimes the teeth are made to screw into the head, and fasten 

 with nuts, which prevents their dropping out in dry seasons. 



2382. The corn-rake {fig. 251.) is of different 

 dimensions and constructions in different counties. 

 In general the length of the rake is about four 

 feet ; and the teeth of iron about four inches 

 long, and set from one to two inches apart. 

 Young [Report of Norfolk) mentions one of these 

 dimensions which had two wheels of nine inches 

 diameter, and so fixed that the teeth may be kept 

 in any posture at the will of the holder. It was 

 used both for hay and com, and answered the 

 purpose well. 



2383. In East Lothian a corn-rake has been 

 tried, which according to Somerville {Survey,&,c.) 

 has been found to answer much better than the 



common corn rake. In this, the length of thehead* -;/--'---- ^---r 

 is from ten to fifteen feet, the handle about seven feet, with a piece of wood across the 

 end of it, by which it is drawn by two men. The teeth are of wood or iron, the 

 last are the best, as well as the most durable, and are a little bent forward at the 

 point, which gives them the power of retaining and carrying the ears along with 

 them much better than they would otherwise do. To make clean work, especially if 

 the ridges are rounded, the field is raked across ; in that way every thing is taken 

 up ; but when it is preferred to draw the rake in the direction of the ridges, it may be 

 tionsidcrably improved by cutting the head into two or three lengths {Jig. 252.), and join- 



