Book V. OPERATIONS WITH PLANTS. 457 



the weak lateral shoots, that the portion of sap destined for their nourishment may be thrown into the 

 strong ones. In some cases, besides cutting off the weak shoots, the strong ones are shortened, in order to 

 produce three or four shoots instead of one. In general, mere bulk being the object, upright shoots are en- 

 couraged rather than lateral ones ; excepting in the case of trained trees, where shoots are encouraged at 

 all angles, from the horizontal to the perpendicular, but more especially at the medium of 45 degrees. 

 In old trees, this object is greatly promoted by the removal, with the proper instruments, ot the dead 

 outer bark. 



2925. Fruning for lessening the bulk of the tree is also chiefly confined to nursery practice, as necessary 

 to keep unsold trees iwrtable. It consists in little more than what is technically called heading dawn ; 

 that is, cutting off the leading shoots within an inch or two of the main stem, leaving, in some cases, some 

 of the lower lateral shoots. Care is taken to cut to a leaf bud, and to choose such from among the side, 

 upper, or under buds of the shoot, according as the succeeding year's shoots may be wanted, in radiated 

 lines from the stem, or in oblique lines in some places to fill up vacancies. It is evident that this 

 unnatural operation persisted in for a few years must render the tree knotty and unsightly, and in stone- 

 fruits, at least, it is apt to generate canker and gum. 



2926. Pruning for modifying the form of the tree embraces the management of the plant from the time 

 of its propagation. In rearing trees planted for timber, it is desirable to throw the timber produced, 

 jis much as possible, into long compact masses; and hence pruning is employed to remove the side 

 branches, and encourage the growth of the bole or stem. Where this operation is begun when the trees 

 are young, it is easily performed every two or three years, and the progress of the trees under it is most 

 satisfactory ; when, however, it is delayed till they have attained a timber size, it is, in all cases, much 

 less conducive to the desired end, and sometimes may prove injurious. It is safer in such cases to shorten 

 or lessen the size of lateral branches, rather than to cut them off close by the stem, as the large wounds 

 produced by the latter practice either do not cicatrize at all, or not till the central part is rotten, and has 

 contaminated the timber of the trunk. In all cases, a motjerate number of small branches, to be taken off 

 as they grow large, are to be left on the trunk, to facilitate the circulation of the sap and juices. Where 

 timber-trees are planted for shelter or shade, unless intermixed with shrubs or copse, it is evident pruning 

 must be directed to clothing them from the summit to the ground, with side branches. In avenues, 

 and hedge-row trees, it is generally desirable that the lowest branches should be a considerable dis- 

 tance from the ground ; in trees intended to conceal objects, as many branches should be left as possible ; 

 and in others, which conceal distant objects desired to be seen, or injure or conceal near objects, the form 

 must be modified accordingly. In all these cases, the superfluous i)arts are to be cut off with a clean sec- 

 tion, near a bud or shoot if a brarich is shortened, or close to the trunk if it is entirely removed j the ob- 

 ject being to facilitate cicatrization. 



2927. Pruning for adjusting the stem and branches to the roots is almost solely applicable to transplanted 

 trees, in which it is an essential operation ; and should be performed in general in the interval between 

 removal and replanting, when the plant is entirely out of the ground. Supposing only the extremities of 

 the fibres broken off, as is the case in very small plants and seedlings, then no part of the top will require 

 to be removed ; but if the roots have been broken or bruised in any of their main branches or ramifications, 

 then the pruner, estimating the quantity of root of which the plant is deprived by the sections of fracture 

 and other circumstances, peculiar and general, will be able to form a notion of what was the bulk of the 

 whole roots before the tree was undisturbed. Then he may state the question of lessening the top to ad- 

 just it to the roots, thus: as the whole quantity of roots which the tree had before removal, is to tlie whole 

 quantity of branches which it now has, so is the quantity of roots which it now has to the quantity of top 

 which it ought to have. In selecting the shoots to be removed, regard must be had to the ultimate cha- 

 racter the tree is to assume, whether a standard, or trained fruit-tree, or ornamental bush. In general, 

 bearing- wood and weak shoots should be removed, and the stronger lateral and upright shoots, with leaf or 

 shoot-eyes, left. 



2928. Pruning for renewal of the head is performed by cutting over the stem a little way, say its own 

 thickness above the collar, or the surface of the ground. This practice applies to old osier-beds, coppice 

 woods, and to young forest-trees. Sometimes also it is performed on old, or ill-thriving fruit-trees which 

 are headed down to the top of their stems. This operation is performed with the saw, and better after sca- 

 rification, as in cutting off the broken limb of an animal. The live section should be smoothed with the 

 chisel or knife, covered with the bark, and coated over with grafting-clay, or any convenient compo- 

 sition, which will resist drought and rain for a year. Those who are advocates for pruning when the 

 sap is dormant, will not of course be able to perform the operation of scarification, and covering the section 

 with bark. 



2929. Pruning for curing diseases has acquired much celebrity since the time of Forsyth, whose am- 

 putations and scarifications for the canker, together with the plaster or composition which he em- 

 ployed to protect the wounds from air, are treated of at large in his Treatise on Fruit-Trees. Almost 

 all vegetable diseases either have their origin in the weakness of the individual, or induce a degree 

 of weakness ; hence to amputate a part of a diseased tree is to strengthen the remaining part, because 

 the roots remaining of the same force, the same quantity of sap will be thrown upwards as when the head 

 and branches were entire. If the disease is constitutional, or in the system, this practice may probably, in 

 some cases, communicate to the tree so much strength as to enable it to throw it off; if it be local, the 

 amputation of the part will at once remove the disease, and strengthen the tree. 



2930. Mowing is the operation of cutting down corn, grass, and other herbage crop.s 

 with the scythe. It requires great force in the operator, and also a twisting motion of 

 the body wliich brings ahnost every muscle into action, and is in short one of the most 

 severe of agricultural labors. The chief art consists in cutting the crop as close to the 

 surface of the ground as possible and perfectly level, pointing the swaths well out so as 

 to leave scarcely any ridges under them. In the mowing of grain crops, such scythes as 

 are shorter in the blade than the common ones, and to which eitlier a cradle or two twigs 

 of ozier put semicirculai'-wise into holes made in the handles near the blades, in such a 

 manner that one semicircle intersects the other, are made use of. Commonly in mowing 

 barley, oats, or other grain, the corn is on the right hand of the workman ; but M. de 

 Lisle adopted something like the Hainault metliod of mowing wheat (2404.), in which 

 the corn was at his left hand : he mowed it inwards, bearing the corn he cuts on his 

 scythe, till it comes to that which is standing, against which it gently leans. After every 

 mower a gatherer follows, which may be a lad, or a woman. The gatherer keeps within 

 live or six feet of the mower, and being provided either with a hook or stick about two 

 feet long, gathers up the corn, making it into parcels, and laying it gently on the 

 ground ; this must be done with spirit, as another mower immediately follows, and to 

 every mower there is a particular gatherer. And to do this work properly, the mower 

 should form but one tract with his feet, advancing in a posture neariy as if he was going 



