Book V. LABORS WITH CATTLE. 471 



the following manner: The first thing is to mark off the head ridges, on which the horses turn in 

 ploughing, which should in general be of an equal breadth from the bounding lines of the field, if these 

 lines are not very crooked or irregular. The next operation, assuming one straight side of the field, or a 

 line that has been made straight, as the proper direction of the ridges, is to measure off from it with one 

 of the poles (all of them of a certain length, or expressing specific measures), half the intended breadth 

 of the ridge, if it is to be gathered, or one breadth and a half if to be ploughed flat; and there the 



Eloughman sets up a pole as a direction for the plough to enter. On a line with this, and at some distance, 

 e plants a second pole, and then in the same manner a third, fourth, &c., as the irregularity of the sur- 

 face may render necessary, though three must always be employed, the last of them at the end of the 

 intended ridge, and the whole in one straight line. He then enters the plough at the first pole, keeping 

 the line of poles exactly between his horses, and ploughs down all the poles successively ; halting his horses 

 at each, and replacing it at so many feet distant as the ridges are to be broad ; so that when he reaches the 

 end of the ridge, all his poles are again set up in a new fine parallel to the first. He returns however, 

 along his former track, correcting any deviations, and throwing a shallow furrow on the side opposite to 

 his former one. These furrows, when reversed, form the crown of the ridge, and direct the ploughmen 

 who are to follow. The same operations are carried on until the whole field is marked out. This is called 

 Jeiring in Scotland, and striking the furrows in England. It is surprising with what accuracy these lines 

 are drawn by skilful ploughmen. 



3011. Another method has \)Gen&AoT^tedi for the same purpose, which promises to be useful with less 

 experienced workmen. A stout lath or pole, exactly equal in length to the breadth of the intended ridge, 

 is fixed to the plough, at right angles to the line of the draught, one end of which is placed across the 

 handles exactly opposite the coulter, while the other end projects towards the left hand of the plough- 

 man, and is preserved in its place by a rope passing from it to the collar of the near side horse. At the 

 outer end of the lath, a coulter or harrow tine is fixed perpendicularly, which makes a trace or mark on 

 the ground as the plough moves onwards, exactly parallel lb the line of draught. By this device, when 

 the plough is feiriiig the crown of one ridge, the marker traces the line on which the next ridge is to be 



Jeired. {General Report of Scotland, vol. i. p. 354.) 



3012. The direction and length of ridges, are points which must evidently be regulated by the nature of 

 the surface, and the size of the field. Short angular ridges, called butts, which are often necessary in a 

 field with irregular boundaries, are always attended with a considerable loss of time, and ought to be 

 avoided as much as possible. 



3013. In ploughing steep land it is advisable to give the ridges an inclination towards the right hand at 

 the top, by which, in going up the acclivity, the furrow falls more readily from the plough, and with less 

 fatigue to the horses. Another advantage of forming ridges in a slanting direction on such land is, that 

 the soil is not so apt to be washed down from the higher ground, as if the ridges were laid at right angles. 

 Wherever circumstances will permit, the best direction, however, is due north and south, by which the 

 grain on both sides of the ridge enjoys nearly equal advantages from the influence of the sun. 



3014. Ribbing, a kind of imperfect ploughing, was formerly common on land intended for barley, and 

 was executed soon after harvest, as a preparation for the spring ploughings. A similar operation is still 

 in use in some places, after land has been pulverized by clean ploughings, and is ready for receiving the 

 seed. By this method only half the land is stirred, the furrow being laid over quite flat, and covering an 

 ctiual space of the level surface. But, except in the latter instance, where corn is meant to grow in pa- 

 rallel lines, and where it is used as a substitute for a drilUmachine, ribbing is highly objectionable, and has 

 become almost obsolete. 



301 5. Land thus formed into ridges, is afterwards cultivated without marking out the ridge* 

 aneiv, until the inter-furrows have been obliterated by a fallow or fallow crop. This is done 

 by one or other of the following modes of ploughing. 1 . If the soil be dry, and the 

 land has been ploughed flat, the ridges are split out in such a way, that the space which 

 the crown of the old ridge occupied is now allotted to the open furrow between the new 

 ones. This is technically called crown and furrow ploughing, 2. When the soil is 

 naturally rather wet, or, if the ridges have been raised a little by former ploughings, the 

 form of the old ridges, and the situation of the inter-furrows, are preserved by what is called 

 casting, that is, the furrows of each ridge are all laid in one direction, while those of the 

 next adjoining ridges are turned the contrary way ; two ridges being always ploughed 

 together. 0. It is commonly necessary to raise the ridges on soils very tenacious of 

 moisture, by what is called gathering, which is done by the plough going round the 

 ridge, beginning at the crown and raising all the furrow slices inwards. 4. This last 

 peration, when it is wished to give the land a level surface, as in fallowing, is reversed 

 by turning all the furrow-slices outwards ; beginning at the inter- furrows, and leaving 

 an open furrow on the crown of each ridge. In order to bring the land into as level a 

 state as possible, the same mode of ploughing or cleaning, as it is called, may be repeated 

 as often as necessary. 



3016. With respect to ploughing relatively to time, in the strongest lands, a pair of 

 good horses ought to plough three quarters of an acre in nine hours, but upon the same 

 land, after the first ploughing, on friable soils, one acre, or an acre and a quarter is a 

 common day's work. Throughout the year, an acre a day may be considered as a full 

 average, on soils of a medium consistency. The whole series of furrows on an English 

 statute acre, supposing each to be nine inches broad, would extend to 19,360 yards ; and 

 adding twelve yards to every 220 for the ground travelled over in turning, the whole 

 work of one acre may be estimated as extending to 20,416 yards, or eleven miles and 

 nearly five furlongs. 



3017. In ploughing relatively to season, it is well known, that clayey or tenacious soils 

 should never be ploughed when wet; and that it is almost equally improper to allow tliem 

 to become too dry ; especially if a crop is to be sown without a second ploughing. The 

 state in which such lands should be ploughed is that which is commonly indicated by the 

 phrase, " between the wet and tlie dry," while the ground is slightly moist, mellow, 

 and the least cohesive. 



3018. The season best for ploughing the first time for fallow or green crops, is immedi- 

 ately after harvest, or after wheat sowing is finished ; 'and when tliis land has been gone 



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