132 LIFE : OUTLINES OF GENERAL BIOLOGY 



a particular queen, yet all working harmoniously as members of an 

 integrated societary form. This shows that the difference between 

 a large family and a small society Ls not of much importance from 

 the sociological point of view. The essential features of a society are 

 corjwrate action and some degree of self-subordination, which 

 is sometimes, though by no means always, accompanied by 

 division of labour, as in the case of the workers and soldiers already 

 mentioned. 



Animal societies may be usefully distinguished as predominantly 

 intelligent and predominantly instinctive, with gradations between 

 the two. Thus societies on a predominantly intelligent basis are 

 illustrated by a troop of baboons, a herd of elephants, horses, or 

 cattle, a beaver village, a community of prairie-dogs or of viscachas, 

 while societies on a predominantly instinctive basis are illustrated 

 bv the communities among ants, bees, and wasps, and by the ter- 

 mitaries. Among social birds there is, no doubt, instinctive as well 

 as intelligent behaviour; and among ants intelligent as well as 

 instinctive, but the contrast between the two types is well marked. 

 It is much more important than the distinction between societies 

 composed of kindred of diverse descent and large families all children 

 of the same mother. 



Societies have evolved at so many different levels that it is 

 (lithcult to define their preconditions. But there must be some 

 capacity for kin-s\'mpathy, and some fineness of brain. Mites and 

 greenflies form great multitudes, but no societies. Yet there must 

 be some degree of prolific multiplication, or else a long reproductive 

 {>eriod in the case of slowly breeding animals like elephants. A small 

 animal society is very rare; strength is in numbers. The mode of 

 food-getting must be congruent with the social habit. Thus it is 

 not surprising that there are among spiders only two or three social 

 species. Interesting in this connection is the temporary assumption 

 of sociality; thus wolves are solitary in summer and gregarious in 

 winter, the very opposite of wasps! 



As is usual with good things, there are seven virtues in sociality 

 among animals. Many small and weak creatures become in their 

 societies safe and strong, as ants well show. Operations impossible 

 (or a single individual are successfully organised, as when a number 

 of ants drag large booty to the nest. There may be economisation 

 of energy, as when one wild goose relieves another as leader of the 

 flying phalanx, l^conomy is enhanced when there is division of labour, 

 as in placing sentinels. There is an opportunity for forming perma- 

 nent products, such as ant-hill and beehive and beaver-dam, which 

 serve as what may be called an objective tradition. The social 

 milieu is such that it fosters kin-sympathy and wits, sometimes 

 rising to words, play, and artistic products. 



The seventh advantage we must place by itself, it is so funda- 



