828 SPECIAL MUSCULAR MECHANISMS. 



often spoken of as being uttered with voice and P without voice ; and D and 

 G (hard) with voice bear the same relation to T and K without voice. 



The continuous consonants may further be divided into 



2. Aspirates. In these the sound is generated by a rush of air through a 

 constriction formed by the partial closure of the lips, or by the raising of 

 the tongue against the hard or soft palate, etc. Thus, F is sounded when 

 the lips are brought into partial, and not as in P and B into complete approxi- 

 mation, and a current of air is driven through the narrowed opening. F is 

 uttered without any accompanying vibration of the vocal cords, i. e., without 

 voice. With voice it becomes V. 



The sibilant S is formed by a rush of air past an obstruction caused by 

 the partial closure of the teeth, the front of the tongue being depressed at 

 the same time ; and S accompanied with vibrations of the vocal cords 

 becomes Z. 



In Sh the dorsal surface of the tongue is raised so as to narrow the 

 passage between that organ and the palate for a considerable portion of its 

 length. 



Th is formed by placing the tongue between the two partially open rows 

 of teeth ; and the hard and soft Th bear to each other the same relation as 

 do P and B. 



L is produced when the passage is closed in the middle by pressing the 

 tip of the tongue against the hard palate and the air is allowed to escape at 

 the sides of the tongue. 



When the constriction in an aspirate is formed by the approximation of 

 the root of the tongue to the soft palate, we have the guttural CH (as in 

 loch) without voice and GH (as in lough) with voice. 



3. Resonants or nasals. In these, all of which must have vibrations of 

 the vocal cords as a basis, the usual passage through the mouth is closed 

 either in a labial, dental, or guttural fashion, and the peculiar character is 

 given to the sound by the nasal chambers acting as a resonance cavity. Thus 

 in M, the passage is closed by the approximation of the lips, in N by the 

 approximation of the tongue to the hard palate, and in NG by the approxi- 

 mation of the root of the tongue to the soft palate. 



4. The various forms of R are often spoken of vibratory, the charac- 

 teristic sounds being caused by the vibration of some or other of the parts 

 forming a constriction in the vocal passage. Thus the ordinary II is pro- 

 duced by vibrations of the point of the tongue elevated against the hard 

 palate, the guttural R by the vibrations of the uvula or other parts of the 

 walls of the pharynx ; and in some languages there seems to be an R pro- 

 duced by the vibrations of the lips. 



H is caused by the rush of air through the widely opened glottis. When, 

 in sounding a vowel, the sound coincides with a sudden change in the posi- 

 tion of the vocal cords from one of divergence to one of approximation, the 

 vowel is pronounced with the spiritus asper. When the vocal cords are 

 brought together before the blast of air begins, the vowel is pronounced with 

 the spiritus lenis. The Arabic H is produced by closing the rima vocalis, 

 the epiglottis and false vocal cords being depressed, and sending a blast of air 

 through the rima respiratoria. 



On many of the above points, however, there are great differences of 

 opinion, the discussion of which as well as of other more rare consonantal 

 sounds would lead us too far away from the purpose of this book. The 

 following tabulated statement must, therefore, be regarded as introduced for 

 convenience only. 



