83 



THE FARMIR'S MONTHLY VISITOR. 



stituted an old door when occasion required it — 

 this leaf hooks on and oft' at pleasure. The ma- 

 chine is simple enougli in its construction, as you 

 will perceive when you see it in opperation. 

 Yours, respectfully, 



RICHARD I. JONES." 



Col. Hekrick is making arrangements for the 

 supply of the Horse Power aini Thrashing and 

 Cleaning Machines in this State. The expense of 

 the machines of tlie size for two horses will be two 

 hundred dollars, that is, one hundred dollars for 

 the horse power, which may be apjiliod to other ob- 

 jects, and the Separator one hundred dollars. 



Rights for the use of towns and districts may be 

 obtained by purchase. The machine will thrash 

 and cleanse one hundred bushels and over in a day 

 of rye or wheat, and two and three hundred bush- 

 els of oats. One machine will readily do the work 

 of a whole neighborhood. Persons who may wish 

 to purchase or procure the use of these machines, 

 may address Col. Herrick at Lewiston, Lincoln 

 County, Maine, any time previous to the middle 

 of August; after that time he will have these ma- 

 chines in operation at Concord and in several oth- 

 er towns in Now Hampshire. 



On ploughing in crops for Manure. 



Boston, March 25, 1840. 



Dr. S. L. Dana — Dear sir— Two successful and 

 e.xperienced farmers, one in Franklin and one in 

 Berkshire county, have come to the conclusion, 

 that, in turning in crops by way of enriching the 

 land, more benefit is derived, that is, the fenility 

 of the land is more advanced by ploun-hino- in a 

 crop after it has become dried or dead, than by tur- 

 ning it in in its greatest lu.xurianco and greenness. 

 One of them showed me the results of an experi- 

 ment tending to this point, which appeared strong- 

 ly to favor his conclusions. A well established 

 fact is better than the most ehaborate hypothesis ; 

 and prejudices, liowcver strong, must yield to 

 facts. 



Allow me under these circumstances, to inquire 

 whether, upon your principles or philosophy of ve- 

 getation, there occur to you any good reasons for a 

 result so much at variance with popnI.Tr opinion. 

 Your views in full on this subject, will add to the 

 obligations under which you have already laid the 

 public and your respectful friend and servant, 



HENRY COLMAN. 

 Lowell, Miiich 23, )S40. 



Dear sir: — The results referred to in your letter, 

 are opposed to the common opinion. Common o- 

 pinion, especially in agriculture, is not always 

 founded on observation. It is oftener prejudice, 

 than opinion : and, when inconsistent'with well 

 known facts, has not its source in observation or 

 experiment. The whole resolves itself into this, 



DRV PLANTS CIVE MORE GEINE THAN OREF.N. This 



follows from the little we know of the process 

 termed "fermentation;" I use Ihe term as com- 

 monly expressive of the spontaneous decay of ve- 

 getables. It includes the Ihree stnges of vinous acid 

 and putrefactive fermentation. These are not neces- 

 sarily dependant, following in regular nrogression 

 ■i ney are not cause and effect. "Putrefaction may 

 commence fir3t,and it is so different from the others, 

 in all Its stages and products, that the term "fermen- 

 tation" ought never to have been applied to it. 

 Ihe greater part of vegetables is susceptible of 

 putrefaction only, a small number become acid at 

 once, and a stiU .smaller number ever undergo vi- 

 nous, acetous, and putrefactive fermentation. Fer- 

 mentation then, in its widest sense, will help us 

 to understand how dry crops may be better ma- 

 nures than green. Let 

 and products 



1st. What vegetable substances are susceptible 

 of the vinous fermentation, and what are its pro- 

 ducts? ' 



The juices only which contain suirar, or starch 

 convertible first into gum and then into sutrar bv 

 the action of azotizcd vegetable principles, "espe- 

 cially gluten. Pure sugar never ferments. The 

 vinous ferment.at.on must be excited by some sub- 

 stance containing nitrogen. There are three things 

 essential to vinous fermentation, air ov oxy<ren aas 

 moisture in due proportion, anda temperatrire nev- 



ducts of tins process are gases, ferment or yea.st, 

 and vinous liqnor^ The gas.-s are carbonic acid 

 and hydrogen. The j^ast p.uceeds from a change 

 m the organization of the gluten and albumen; 

 some late French experimenters think it proceeds 

 from a continued evolution of infusorial plants 

 hence yeast begets yeast, like sowin.. crops Jf seed: 

 However, let us leave speculation. The main facts 

 are as above stated. If, then, we plough „en 

 plants, we put them in a temperatire favorable to 



the commencement of vinous fermentation j we 

 bury them full of sap — the requisite moisture for 

 vinous fermentation. The sugar and starch of the 

 plant fermented by its gluten and albumen, are 

 converted into gases' and alcohol, the former are 

 lost in air, the last, washes away or is changed to 

 vinegar. All that remains for the farmer is the 

 altered gluten and albumen, which soon putrify 

 and form geine. All the starch and sugar of the 

 plant are thus lost. 



2d. What vegetable substances are susceptible 

 of the acid fermentation, and what are its products.' 



The substances are, first, sugar, which, in cer- 

 tain cases, becomes acid, without undergoing vin- 

 ous fermentation ; second, gum. The circumstan- 

 ces essential to acid fermentation are air, moisture, 

 and a temperature from 0.5 to 70 deg. F ; acetic 

 acid is itself the proper ferment of acid fermenta- 

 tion. Vinegar, as is well known, singularly pro- 

 motes the formation of vinegar in vinous liquors. 

 The products are ; carbonic, acetic acid or vinegar, 

 sTiUO other acid!, especially that called nance- 

 ie or zumio acid, wliicli if not lactic, is perhaps 

 only acetic acid, liolding in combination, some azo- 

 tized substance. This acid combines with the al- 

 kaline and earthy ingredients of plants and soils, 

 and forms very soluble salts. Green plants, plough- 

 ed in, arc at once placeil in a situation most favor- 

 able for undergoing acid fermentation. We suffer 

 a loss of a part of the carbon, and in addition to 

 the sugar and starch, we now lose the gum of the 

 plants. All these are capable of producing geine, 

 and hence in ploughing in green crops, we lose a 

 portion of manure. 



3d. What are the vegetable iSubstances suscepti- 

 ble of putrefaction, and what are its products ■" 



With the exception of oils, resins, &c. every or- 

 ganized part of every vegetable may putrefy. The 

 circumstances essential to this process, are air, a 

 temperature not below 4'> deg. and moisture. No 

 perfectly dry plant ever putrefies, nor will a moist 

 one, if air is excluded. I have had a capital ex- 

 ample of the last, In a piece of a white birch tree, 

 dug up from a depth of twenty-five feet below the 

 surface in Lowell, this winter. It must have been 

 inhumed there probably before the creation of man, 

 at least at a time " whereof the memory of man 

 runneth not to the contrary," yet this most per- 

 ishable of all wood is nearly as sound as if cut 

 from the forest last fall. A dried plant has parted 

 with most of its sap, that moisture, essential to the 

 commencement of vinous and acetous fermenta- 

 tion. During tlie very act of decay, from the mo- 

 ment when its living functions have ceased, now 

 combinations of its elements begin. It has alrea- 

 dy begun to be destroyed by the very agents which 

 gave it life. This is the beginning of putrefaction. 

 Let us not be deceived by a name. Putrefaction 

 we always associate with disgusting eflluvia. Eut 

 in the wide sense we have defined it, it includes 

 also the fragrance of new hay. Whenever bodies 

 consist only of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and a 

 trace of azote, their putrefaction is fragrant, or in- 

 odorous; when, in addition to these, bodies contain 

 large portions of azotized matter, gluten, albumen 

 or sulphur, and phosphorus, putrefaction evolves 

 abominable odors. To the agriculturist, putrefac- 

 tion is always a wholesome p[ocess, beneficial to 

 his best interests, when promoted and controlled. 

 There is only one case where this process produces 

 loss. This may ho termed destructireputrefuctioii; 

 it is produced by heaping together green plants, 

 or sometimes by moistening dry vegetable sub- 

 stances. Here oxygen is rapidly absoibed, and fi- 

 nally the mass takes fire, and burns. Up to the 

 reen. Let us glance at the principles- '^"'7^ of inflammation this is putrefaction. New 

 of fermentation P'^'cipits hay, stacked too green, is a familiar example. Vol- 



umes of steam are evolved, which proceed partly 

 from the decomposition of the plant ; decomposi- 

 tions, and rcco 



positions rapidly ensue ; these are 

 the ferment, which keeps up the action till the 

 plants burn. Doubtless, all green plants, plough- 

 ed in, undergo to a greater or less extent, destruc- 

 tive putrefaction, which succeeds the vinous ami 

 acid fermentations, perhaps caused by the very ra- 

 pidity of these processes. Hence in addition to 

 the sugar, starch, and gum of the plant, we lose a 

 large portion of its other substances, by turning it 

 in green. The productsof this rapid fermentation 

 have been but little studied. Happv the farmer 

 who never witnesses the process. He should nev- 

 er induce it, and may generally prevent its exten- 

 sion, when once begun. It is a dead loss to him ; 

 but in nil other cases of putrefaction, the products 

 are 7'iluable. These vary according as the process 

 takes ])Iace : lf,t, in air; 2d, at the surface of the 

 ground; or, lid, deep in the interior of the earth. 

 The last need not detain js — it produces all the va 

 rieties of coal. 



lot. In the free ai', having Bcct-s.i to all parts of 



a plant, putrefaction produces carbonic acid, nitric 

 acid, and water. But ordinarily, in the air, as ox- 

 ygen does not find ready access to all parts, a por- 

 tion of the hydrogen of the plant combines tlien 

 with the carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and azote of 

 the plant, and we have carburetted, sulphuretted, 

 and phosphuretted hydrogen, and ammonia, produ- 

 ced. Now, as these exist but in small quantity in 

 vegetables, the loss of hydrogen will not be very 

 great by drying the plants, and it is possible, that 

 the removal of these, may cause the other elements 

 to enter into more stable combinations, better fit- 

 ted to produce geine. In ail cases of putrefaction 

 in the open air, oxygen is absorbed, and an equal 

 bulk of carbonic acid given out, while, at the same 

 time, the oxygen and hydrogen of the plant escape 

 as water. The result is, that in the substance left, 

 carbon exists in a greater portion, than in an equal 

 weight of fresh vegetables. In all cases of putre- 

 faction, new products are formed ; these again re- 

 solve into others ; and this action goes on till we 

 have no longer any organic products; we have on- 

 ly binary or inorganic substances left. All our 

 researches into the philosophy of the changes in 

 fermentation, terminate in these binary products, 

 that is, in compounds, consisting of only two ele- 

 ments. During all these various changes, a varie- 

 ty of substances must, of course, be formed. As 

 the elements of living, so the elements of dead 

 plants, are continually changing into new foims. 

 Nature is admirably simple, and never so learned 

 as our books. We ought not to dignify with a new 

 name, every new product of putrefaction, which 

 we may fortunately arrest. However various these 

 products may be, whether products or educts of pu- 

 trefaction, or of our analytical methods of separa- 

 ting them, all putrefaction at the surface of the 

 earth, ends by forming a brownish, black, j)o\vdery 

 mass, which combines with the alkaline, earthy 

 and metalic bases in the plant. This substance has 

 been called " Geine." As I have elsewhere defi- 

 ned it, it is the decomposed organic matter of the 

 soil. It is the product of putrefaction ; continu- 

 ally subjected to air and moisture, it is finally 

 wholly dissipateil in air, leaving only the inorganic 

 bases of the plant, with which it was once combi- 

 ned. Now, whether we consider this as a simple 

 substance, or composed of several others, called cre- 

 nic, apocrenic, puteanic, ulmic acids, glairin, apo- 

 theme, extract, humus, or mould, agriculture ever 

 has, and probably ever will consider it one and the 

 same thing, requiring always similar treatment to 

 produce it ; similar treatment to render it soluble 

 when produced ; similar treatment to render it an 

 effectual manure. It is the end of all compost 

 heaps to produce soluble geine, no matter how 

 compound our chemistry ma}- teach this substance 

 to be. 



Among the many economical modes of produc- 

 ing geine, the ploughing in of vegetable matter, 

 has held a high rank. Nature teaches us to turn 

 in the dried plant. Dried leaves are her favorite 

 morsels, and the very fact, that Nature always 

 takes the dried plant, from which to prepare the 

 food of growing vegetables, should have taught us 

 long ago, the wisdom of ploughing in dry crops. 

 The careful collecting and husbanding of dried 

 leaves, their superior ellicacy in forming compost, 

 bears witness to the facts stated in your letter. — 

 That the use of dried leaves for compost has not 

 led to the turning in of dry crops, has probably a- 

 risen from the consideration, that a greater quan- 

 tity «f geine may be produced, by turning in two 

 or three green crops in a season, than by one crop 

 of dry. This needs experimental confirmation. 

 The very act of tilhge, on Mr. Keelp's plan, by ex- 

 posing the insoluble geine of one crop, to air, ren- 

 ders it soluble, while at the same time, two or three 

 green crops must form a greater quantity of salts. 

 If only one crop can be turned in, let it be dry. 

 All our philosophy, and the late experiments of 

 your agricultural friends, confirm this view. 

 With great respect, 



I am very truly, yours, 



SAM'L L. DANA. 



Rev. H. Coi.-\ian, Jigriculiitral Commissioner. 



Hints for July. 



From a belief of its utility, confirmed by several 

 years' practice, we earnestly recommend a trial, to 

 those who have not adopted the practice, uf curiri's 

 their clover hatj ami such as abounds in clover, in 

 GHASS COCKS, Instead of spreading and curing it 

 in the old wa}'. It will save labor, save hay, and 

 add much to the value of that wliich is hou.scd. As 

 soon as the grass has become willed in the swath, 

 and the external moisture evaporated, and by nil 

 means before any. of the leaves become dry and 

 crumble, put the grass in grass cocks, as small at 

 the baye as possible, not to exceed a yard in diaiu- 



