660 CONSONANTS. [BOOK in. 



being depressed at the same time ; and S accompanied with vibra- 

 tions of the vocal cords becomes Z. 



In Sh the dorsal surface of the tongue is raised so as to narrow 

 the passage between that organ and the palate for a considerable 

 portion of its length. 



Th is formed by placing the tongue between the two partially 

 open rows of teeth ; and the hard and soft Th bear to each other 

 the same relation as do P and B. 



L is produced when the passage is closed in the middle by 

 pressing the tip of the tongue against the hard palate and the air 

 is allowed to escape at the sides of the tongue. 



When the constriction in an aspirate is formed by the approxi- 

 mation of the root of the tongue to the soft palate, we have the 

 guttural CH (as in loch) without voice and GH (as in lough) with 

 voice. 



3. Resonants or Nasals. In these, all of which must have 

 vibrations of the vocal cords as a basis, the usual passage through 

 the mouth is closed either in a labial, dental, or guttural, fashion 

 and the peculiar character is given to the sound by the nasal 

 chambers acting as a resonance cavity. Thus in M, the passage is 

 closed by the approximation of the lips, in N, by the approximation 

 of the tongue to the hard palate, and in NG by the approximation 

 of the root of the tongue to the soft palate. 



4. The various forms of R are often spoken of as vibratory, the 

 characteristic sounds being caused by the vibration of some or 

 other of the parts forming a constriction in the vocal passage. 

 Thus the ordinary R is produced by vibrations of the point of the 

 tongue elevated against the hard palate, the guttural R by the 

 vibrations of the uvula or other parts of the walls of the pharynx ; 

 and in some languages there seems to be an R produced by the 

 vibrations of the lips. 



H is caused by the rush of air through the widely open glottis. 

 When, in sounding a vowel, the sound coincides with a sudden 

 change in the position of the vocal cords from one of divergence to 

 one of approximation, the vowel is pronounced with the spiritus 

 asper. When the vocal cords are brought together before the 

 blast of air begins, the vowel is pronounced with the spiritus lenis. 

 The Arabic H is produced by closing the rima vocalis, the epi- 

 glottis and false vocal cords being depressed, and sending a blast of 

 air through the rima respiratoria. 



On many of the above points however, there are great dif- 

 ferences of opinion, the discussion of which as well as of other more 

 rare consonantal sounds would lead us too far away from the 

 purpose of this book. The following tabular statement must 

 therefore be regarded as introduced for convenience only. 



