140 
POPULAR SCIENCE NEWS. 
[September, 1890. 
were .26 on the 9th and loth each. Twenty-four 
observations were noted stationary. 
WINDS. 
The average direction of the wind the last month, 
calculated as usual, was W. 22" 17' S., or nearly 
W. S. W., while the average direction for the last 
twenty-one Julys has been W. 24° 20' S., with ex- 
tremes of W. 4° 51' N. in 1889, and W. 66° 15' S. in 
1878,— a range of 71° 9', or over six points of the 
sompass. 
COMPARATIVE METEOROLOGY OF NEW ENGLAND FOR 
JUNE, 1890, 
gathered from the Bulletins of the New England 
Meteorological Society. The average temperature 
and precipitation are presented in the following 
table, State by State, with that of New England 
combined, all ascertained from careful observers, 
widely distributed in each State. The extremes 
and range are also given, with the number of reports 
thus condensed. 
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The above table is sufficiently plain, except, per- 
haps, the last line, which gives the average temper- 
ature of June from twenty stations in New England 
having records of more than ten years, and the 
average precipitation from twenty-nine stations 
having similar records. Comparing these figures 
with those in the line above, we learn that the last 
June was below the mean in both respects. 
I may add that the warmest locality reported in 
New England the last June was Northampton, 
Mass., (68 ^"), and the coolest Eastport, Me., (54'') ; 
the highest rainfall at West Milan, N. H., (6.46 
inches), and the least at Swampscott, Mass., (i.iS 
inches). D. W. 
Natick, August 5, 1890. 
[Specially Computed for Popular Science Newn.\ 
ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR 
SEFfEMRER, 1890. 
The sun crosses the equator and autumn begins 
about 9 P. M. September 22. Mercury is an even- 
ing star at the beginning of the month, and comes 
to east elongation at 4 A. M. on the morning 
of September 3, at which time it is 27° east of the 
sun ; but, as it is also 13° south, the elongation is 
not at all favorable, and it probably cannot be seen 
with the naked eye. It rapidly approaches the sun, 
and comes to inferior conjunction on the afternoon 
of September 29. V'enus is also an evening star, 
setting two hours or more after the sun. It comes 
to eastern elongation about midnight on September 
J3, when its distance from the sun is a little less 
than 47°. It is growing brighter, but will not attain 
its greatest brilliancy until a month later, about 
halfway between elongation and inferior conjunc- 
tion. Mars is also in the western sky in the even- 
ing, passing the meridian at about 6 P. M. It is 
quite far to the south, its meridian altitude being 
only about 25° for the northern part of the United 
States. It is moving eastward somewhat rapidly 
among the stars, — 20" during the month, — and 
passes from the constellation Scorpius into Sagit- 
tarius. It is also growing fainter, owing to its 
increasing distance from the earth, and at the end 
of the month its distance from us is about equal 
to that of the sun. Jupiter is in the constellation 
Capricornus, and comes to the meridian a little 
before 10 P. M. on September i, and about two 
hours earlier at the end of the month. It rises or 
sets about five hours earlier or later, respectively, 
than meridian transit. It moves slowly westward 
among the stars until September 28, when it begins 
to move eastward. The following eclipses of his 
satellites are visible from one part or another of the 
United States. The phenomena all take place near 
the right-hand limb of the planet, as seen in an 
inverting telescope. D. denotes disappearance; 
R., reappearance. Times are Eastern Standard. 
I. R. September 
II. R. September 
I. R. September 
I. R. September 
II. R. September 
III. R. September 
I. R. September 
II. R. September 
III. D. September 
III. R. September 
I. R. September 
IV. D. September 
IV. R. September 
I. R. September 
III. D. September 
2, 7h. 56m. P. M. 
5, 8h. 46m. P. M. 
8, 3h. 22m. A. M. 
9, 9h. 51m. P. M. 
12, lib. 23m. P. M. 
13, 7h. 51m. P. M. 
16, lib. 46m. P. M. 
20, 2h. oin. A. M. 
20, 8h. 2im. P. M. 
20, lib. 53m. P. M. 
24, ih. 42m. A. M 
24, loh. 39m. P. M. 
25, 3h. 19m. A. M. 
25, 8h. lom. P. M. 
28, I2h. 22m. A. M. 
Saturn is not in good position for observation. 
It passed conjunction with the sun on August 30, 
and became a morning star, but will not get far 
enough awSy to be easily seen until near the end 
of the month. It will then rise two hours or more 
before the sun, and about 10° north of the east 
point. Uranus is an evening star, setting soon 
after the sun — less than an hour later at the end 
of the month. It is in Virgo, 3° to 4° west and a 
little north of Spica (Alpha Virginis). On the 
morning of September 2, Venus passes 2" south 
of Uranus. Neptune is a morning star, between 
the Pleiades and Hyades in Taurus. 
The Constellations. — The positions given hold 
good for latitudes differing not much from 40° 
north, and for 10, 9, and S P. M. for the beginning, 
middle, and end of the month, respectively. Cyg- 
nus is directly overhead. Delphinus, high up, and 
Capricornus, low down, are on the southern merid- 
ian. Piscis Australis is below Capricornus, and not 
quite up to the meridian. Aquarius is to the left 
of Capricornus, at about the same altitude. After 
Aquarius come Pisces and Aries, the latter being 
almost due east, at about 10" altitude. Taurus is 
just rising, a little north of east. Pegasus is between 
Pisces and the zenith ; and Andromeda is above 
and a little to the north of Aries. Cassiopeia is to 
the right and a little above the pole star. Perseus 
is low down in the northeast, and Auriga is just 
rising below it. Draco is to the west of the merid- 
ian. Ursa Minor is mainly to the west of the pole 
star, at about the same altitude. Ursa Major is 
below the pole, a little to the left. Lyra is just 
to the west of the zenith, with Hercules, Corona 
Borealis, and Bootes below it, the last being near 
the horizon, a little north of we.st. Scorpius is 
setting in the southwest, with Ophiuchus above it. 
Sagittarius is low down in the south, a little west 
of the meridian ; and Aquila is high up, between 
Sagittarius and Cygnus. M. 
Lake Forest, III., August i, 1890. 
' 4«< 
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 
Letters of inquiry should enclose a two-cent 
stamp, as well as the name and address of the 
writer, which will not be published. 
Questions regarding the treatment of diseases 
cannot be answered In this column. 
S. S. B., California. — (i) Why does a train, on 
being stopped on a level track, go back a little just 
before coming to a stand-still .' 
Answer. — This effect is probably due to the release 
of the brakes from the wheels at the last moment, 
allowing the car to settle back a little. It may also, 
sometimes, be an illusion, due to the fact that when 
the speed is reduced the muscles of the body invol- 
untarily hold it braced backwards, to counteract the 
tendency to move forward at the former rate 
of speed. Now if the train stops before the muscles 
resume their usual tension, the body will be pulled 
back a little, producing the impression that the 
whole train is moving the same way. 
(2) How can a hawk soar around in circles and 
rise in the air without moving his wings, and where 
does the power come from } 
Answer — The mechanism of the flight of birds, 
especially the act of "soaring," has never been 
satisfactorily explained. The power by which the 
soaring bird rises in the air comes, undoubtedlv, 
from the wind, but just how it is applied is not 
thoroughly understood. 
Merchant, New York. — What is the scientific 
principle upon which the so-called "fire-proof" 
safes are constructed .'' 
Answer. — The end sought in these safes is to pre- 
vent the heat penetrating into the interior, where 
the combustible books and papers are placed. This 
is attained by making the sides hollow and filling 
them with substances that are non-conductors 
of heat. Steam is a most excellent non-conductor, 
and the walls are usually filled with some chemical, 
like alum, which contains a large amount of water, 
combined with it as water of crystallization. When 
exposed to the fire this water is driven off as steam, 
filling the safe with the non-conducting vapor, and 
preventing the access of heat to the interior. 
Metallic cans filled with water and closed by a plug 
of fusible metal are sometimes used, and act in the 
same way. 
B. T. C, Iowa. — How does light act upon the 
salts of silver in the production of the photographic 
image.' 
Answer. — The action of light upon the silver 
salts is to render them reducible by the pyrogallic 
acid or other chemicals used in the developer. Just 
how it does this is a scientific mystery, which can- 
not be explained with our present knowlc<ige. 
N. D. G., Detroit. — Is it true that there is no 
chemical difference between the various essential 
oils.' 
Answer — Yes; the oils of bergamot, birch, cham- 
omile, caraway, hops, juniper, lemon, myrtle, nut- 
meg, orange, parsley, pepper, savin, thyme, tolu, 
and valerian, all have the same composition, 
expressed by the empirical symbol Ciolliii The 
widely differing properties of these oils are explained 
by chemists as due to the different structure, or way 
in which the atoms are arranged in the molecule, 
just as the same number of bricks may be arranged 
to form a house, church, store, or many other differ- 
ent buildings. 
Electrician, Boston. — The increasing cost of 
platinum is due to the large demand for it by the 
manufacturers of incandescent lamps and other 
electrical apparatus. The supply is small and the 
annual production limited. Unless richer deposits 
of this invaluable metal are discovered, the price 
bids fair to advance indefinitely. 
B. F. T., Conn. — Is it true that a horse-hair will 
turn into a worm if kept in water for some days.' 
Answer. — This is an old superstition without any 
basis whatever in fact. It probably arose from the 
peculiar form of an aquatic animal known as 
Oordius, which has a dark-colored, hair-like body. 
