August i i, 1898] 



NATURE 



35.3 



obtained from these granules consisted chiefly of maj^netic 

 iron oxide, which had been formed through the oxidation 

 of magnetic iron ; the latter could be seen very well. Moreover, 

 the granules contained augite and, probably, sulphuretted iron, 

 and some other substances not yet determined. Besides iron, 

 they also showed traces of nickel and sulphur. " Such a com- 

 position," the Russian professor concludes, "leaves not the 

 slightest doubt about the cosmic origin of the granules contained 

 in that hail." It is interesting to note that, some time ago, M. 

 Czernik collected at the same spot hail which contained granules 

 . of volcanic ashes from Vesuvius. 



Admiral Makaroff, the well-known explorer of the North 

 I'acific, has lately made the proposal to reach the North Pole 

 by means of powerful ice-breakers. The proposal sounds rather 

 strange at first, but the Russian Admiral bases it on sound 

 scientific reasoning and on a good deal of actual experience. 

 Ice-breakers have been used in Russia (at Cronstadt) since 1864, 

 and lately great progress was achieved in their construction in 

 America by arming such vessels with two screws at the stern 

 and a third one at the stem. The American ice-breaker, Ste. 

 Marie, 3000 horse- power, easily sails through ice 2\ feet thick, 

 and pierces ice- walls 15 feet high. Still more powerful ice- 

 breakers have lately been built in America and in this country 

 for the Trans-Siberian railway and the port of Vladivostok. 

 Taking into account that, according to Nansen, the ice-walls 

 (Poroses) in the Arctic basin seldom attain the height of 25 feet, and 

 that the polar sea is free from ice over, at least, one third of its 

 surface, while all the ice is weakened in summer by thawing, and 

 especially by interior canals due to accumulations of salt, and 

 by crevices. Admiral Makaroff concludes that an ice-breaking 

 steamer of 20,cxx) horse-power would overcome all the difficulties 

 which polar ice may oppose to her progress. The distance 

 between the latitude of 78° N. to the pole being 720 miles, he 

 calculates the various speeds at which such a steamer could 

 make her way through ice of various thicknesses from four to 

 seven feet, and he finds that the total distance could be covered 

 in twelve days. Moreover, instead of one ice-breaker of 

 20,000 horse- power, it would be advantageous to have two such 

 vessels of 10,000 horse-power each, it having lately been proved 

 by actual experiment in Russia that two ice-breakers placed one 

 behind the other, and the rear one pushing the front one by 

 means of a special wooden frame, act as effectively as one 

 single ice-breaker of a double force. Admiral Makaroff's pro- 

 posal is, therefore, to build two special ice-breakers of 6000 tons 

 and 10,000 horse-power each, provided with stem screws, and 

 to force a way through the ice to the pole. 



A SHORT account of a recent research, by Prof. Marinelli, on 

 the progressive increase of the area of the Po delta is given in the 

 Geographical Jonrval. From a comparison of the Austrian map 

 of about 1823 with the result of modern surveys carried out in 

 1893, Pfof- Marinelli is led to the conclusion that the mean 

 annual increase during those seventy years has been about 762 

 sq. kilom. ( '293 sq. miles). Taking all known data into con- 

 sideration, the estimated total increase during six centuries 

 amounts to 516 sq. kilom. (198 sq. miles), which means that, 

 by the action of one river alone, Italy has in that period gained 

 no less than ^\-(, of its previous area, while recent surveys show 

 that the increase is actively maintained at the present day. At 

 the end of his article Prof. Marinelli gives some notes on the 

 length of time which would probably be required to fill up the 

 whole of the Northern Adriatic above 44° 45' N. lat. The dis- 

 position now displayed by the mouths of the Po to bend in the 

 direction of the axis of the gulf introduces a special element of 

 uncertainty, but the conclusion is that the time required would 

 certainly exceed 100 centuries, and would probably be more 

 than 120. 



NO. 1502, VOL. 58] 



In connection with the reports which have appeared from 

 time to time that Andree's and other balloons have been sighted 

 in the distance, it is worth while to direct attention to ai* 

 observation recorded by Mr, F. F. Payne in the Canadian 

 Monthly Weather Review. Looking at the sky one afternooi>, 

 Mr. Payne saw a large, grey, pear-shaped object sailing rapidly 

 across, immediately behind a thin stratum of cirro-stratus cloud. 

 At first the object was taken for a balloon, its outline being 

 sharply defined, and its shape and size exactly corresponding to- 

 one ; but as no cage was seen, it was concluded that it must be 

 a mass of cloud, and after watching it for about six minutes, its 

 mass became less dense and finally it disappeared. Whilst no 

 whirling motion could be noticed, this balloon-like mass was 

 undoubtedly of cyclonic formation, appearing less elongated 

 when viewed at a distance probably of a mile and only about 

 30° from the zenith. The observation suggests an origin for 

 strange war balloons and other aerial machines occasionally 

 reported as having been sighted. 



The .Quarterly Summary of the Weekly Weather Report^ 

 issued by the Meteorological Council for the months April to 

 June last, show that the rainfall for that period has been above 

 the normal amount in all districts. The mean for the wheat- 

 producing districts was 6*5 inches, against 58 inches for the 

 thirty-three years 1866-98 ; and the mean for the grazing, &c.v 

 districts was 9*2 inches, against 7*4 inches for the same period. 

 For the whole of the United Kingdom the amount was 7'9. 

 inches, as compared with 6 '6 inches for the thirty-three years iii 

 question. Reckoning from the beginnng of the present year the- 

 rainfall to the end of July is, however, deficient in all districts save- 

 three — viz. the north of Scotland (where the excess amounts to 

 7 inches), the north-west of England, and the north of Ireland. 

 The greatest deficiency is in the Midland counties, where it 

 amounts to 5 inches. The general deficiency is due to the 

 scarcity of rain in the first quarter of the year ; and during the 

 past month the fall has been, generally, much below the 

 average, amounting to only about one-tenth of the average in* 

 the Scilly Islands. 



The remarkable sounds known as "mist pouffers " andS 

 " barisal guns," heard in many parts of the world at sea and 

 near coasts, have frequently been described in these columns. 

 The U.S. Monthly Weather Review (April) contains com- 

 munications by Mr. Samuel W. Kain and others, which show 

 that these sounds are very frequent on fine, calm summer days, 

 in the Bay of Fundy. Prof. Cleveland Abbe points out that the 

 descriptions given of these oceanic noises show that sometimes 

 they have precisely the same characteristics as the noises that may 

 be heard in an aquarium when one stands alongside of a large 

 glass tank and watches the motions of the drum fish. The salt 

 water drum fish (Pogonias chroinis) is common on the Atlantic 

 coast of the United States, and other varieties will doubtless be 

 found in other parts of the world. A large drum fish will give 

 out a sound that may be heard a long distance, and it is sug- 

 gested that some of the sounds which have been heard may 

 have been produced by this or another fish. Prof. Abbe 

 thinks that the noises proceeding from the ocean have probably 

 very different characters and origins ; some are due to the drum* 

 fish ; others are made by the breakers dashing on rocky cliffs» 

 whence heavy thuds spread for several miles through the air and 

 many miles further through the ocean ; others are due to the 

 cracking of rocks in ledges near the surface, such as those ort 

 which lighthouses are built ; others, finally, are occasionally 

 due to genuine earthquakes occurring at the bottom of the 

 neighbouring ocean. It is highly probable that a careful col- 

 lation of observations from many stations in any given locality^ 

 such as the Bay of Fundy, will throw a clear light upon the 

 locality whence the noises emanate. 



