August 9, 191 7] 



NATURE 



471 



The two former sources are already utilised to a con- 

 siderable extent, the second largely predominating. In 

 1914 the islands produced about 12,000,000 proof litres 

 -of alcohol, of which more than 95 per cent, was made 

 from the sap (tuba) of the nipa and of the coco palms. 

 The molasses fermentation industry has suffered much 

 from faulty methods, but considerable improvement is 

 ieing effected through the activities of the Bureau of 

 Science. The nipa palm offers a cheap source for the 

 production of alcohol, each fruiting stalk yielding 

 normally 30 to 50 litres of sap during a season, equiva- 

 lent to an output per hectare of fully 30,000 litres of 

 juice with an average sugar-content of 15 per cent. 

 The utilisation of starch plants still awaits develop- 

 ment. It is estimated that an average acre ot 'cassava 

 would yield more than three times as much starch 

 as an average acre of maize, whilst, in addition, the 

 cassava contains 4 to 6 per cent, of .fermentable sugars. 

 Arrowroot yields 18 to 22 per cent, of starch, and is 

 no more difficult to handle than potatoes. It is pre- 

 dicted that when these sources are developed the 

 tropical countries will secure a practical monopoly of 

 the alcohol industn,'. 



The thickness of a covering of peat is often cited 

 .as giving some clue to the age of the surface on which 

 it grew. Mr. S. R. Capps's recent remarks ("The 

 Chisana-White River District, Alaska," Bull. 630, 

 United States Geological Survey, p. 72) are thus of 

 general interest. He points out that a seedling spruce 

 sends out its first radial roots on the mossy soil, and, 

 in a high latitude, follows these by others at higher 

 ' levels, as the moss thickens and the food-supply from 

 below is cut off through the rising of the level of 

 ground frost. Hence, under such conditions, " the 

 vertical distance between the lowest horizontal roots 

 of a living tree and the surface of the ground repre- 

 sents the thickness of the peaty accumulation during 

 the lifetime of the tree." Air. F. V. Coville has in- 

 formed Mr. Capps that trees of very slow growth may 

 fail during unfavourable years to form distinct annual 

 rings, and that the estimate of the age of the peat- 

 layer by the age of the trees must take this into con- 

 sideration. 



Mr. W. G. Foye, in a paper on " The Lau Islands of 

 the Fiji Group" (Ayner. Journ. Sci., vol. xliii., p. 343, 

 1917), concludes that there is here positive evidence of 

 subsidence, and very good evidence of the development 

 of atolls and barrier reefs during such subsidence. 

 He regards, howevet", a general depression of the 

 Pacific area as unlikely, owing to the irregular occur- 

 rence of uplifted and subsided blocks. 



Mr. J. CoGGiN Brown continues his description of 

 "The Geology of the Province of Yunnan in Western 

 China" in the Records of the Geological Survey of 

 India, vol. xlvii., p. 205. The Silurian fossils col- 

 lected have been determined by Mr. F. R. Cowper 

 Reed, of Cambridge. The paper, with its foundation 

 of hard travel, and its geographical observations 

 interspersed with details of stratigraphy, reminds one 

 of those of the pioneers of the last centur)', and the 

 illustrations show what fine adventure awaits the sur- 

 veyor on the borderlands of the British Empire. 



The Riviera or Ligurian earthquake of February 23, 



1887, was one of the first earthquakes instrumentally 



recorded beyond the limits of the disturbed area. In 



I the early estimates of the velocity there was con- 



I siderable discordance, and a new estimate has there- 



\ fore been made by Messrs. Agamennone and Cava- 



\ sino (Rend, della R. Acad, dei Lined, vol. xxvi., 



' ^917. PP- 167-71). Taking the position of the epi- 



i centre as about 20 km. south of P. Maurizio, and 



using the twenty-eight best estimates in which the 



XO. 2493, VOL. 99] 



initial epoch is given, they find the mean velocity to 

 be 254 km. per second, and the time at the epicentre 

 6h. 2im. gs. a.m. 



Prof. Omori's fifth memoir on the recent erup- 

 tions of the -Asama-yama (Bull. Imp. Earthq. Inv. 

 Com., vol. vii.. No. 2, pp. 217-326) contains a list of 

 the earthquakes and earth-tremors registered at 

 Yuno-taira during the six warmer months (May to 

 October) of each year from 1913 to 1916. This seismo- 

 logical station is situated on the west-south-west 

 slope of the volcano, at a distance of 2-3 km. from 

 the centre of the crater. As in his earlier memoirs, 

 Prof. Omori divides the volcanic earthquakes into 'two 

 types—the A-type, not directly accompanied by out- 

 bursts, and the B-t}-pe, caused by eruptions. The 

 former consist of quick vibrations and are usually 

 of very short duration, the latter of slow gentle move- 

 ments and of comparatively long duration. The 

 tables show, as Prof. Omori remarks, that the former 

 earthquakes have Increased in frequency from 34 in 

 19 13 to 229 In 19 16, while the latter have declined 

 from 7126 in 1913 (all but 25 corresponding to very 

 small outbursts) to none in 1915 and 2 in 1916. 

 Since May 5, 1914, there has been no strong outburst 

 of the Asama-yama. 



A NEW acid sodium phosphate is described by Dr. 

 J. H. Smith in a recent number of the Journal of the 

 Society of Chemical Industry (vol. xxxvl., No. 8). The 

 formula attributed to it is Na^P^Oi-, or 6NajO,9P,Oj. 

 It is notable as having a very energetic corrosive 

 action upon glass, porcelain, nickel, and even platinum 

 and silica. The author describes also a method for 

 the titration of mixed phosphates by employing two 

 Indicators, methyl-orange and phenolphthalein, at 

 55° C, and shows that by this means it is possible to 

 determine readily the proportions of the three sodium 

 salts of orthophosphoric acid when present together 

 in a mixture. 



Some lines of possible research, with a view to the 

 better utilisation of by-products from the coking of 

 coal, are outlined by Mr. G. E. Foxwell in a recent 

 number of the Journal of the Society of Chemical Indus- 

 try (vol. xxxvi.. No. 10). Recovery of sulphur from the 

 pyrites of the coal, so that, together with the ammonia 

 given off in coking, it could be obtained as ammonium 

 sulphate is one of the problems to which a solution 

 is required. Where the chlorine content of the coal is 

 sufficiently high, it also may be recovered with the 

 ammonia in the form of ammonium chloride, and in 

 a few cases this is. In fact, already done. Improved 

 methods for the recover}- of naphthalene and benzol are 

 required, as also for the utilisation of the surplus gas 

 from the coke ovens. This gas, the author calculates. 

 Is equivalent to more than a million tons of coal per 

 annum, and in a great number of cases is got rid of 

 by being allowed to burn away. It might possibly be 

 used as a source of certain chemicals — e.g. chlorinated 

 hydrocarbons — or utilised In gas-engines to generate 

 electricity for distribution, or the gas Itself might be 

 distributed In mains to neighbouring towns. 



In the Issue of La Nature for July 14, M. Le Chate- 

 lier gives a brief survey of the progress of high tem- 

 perature measurements. He points out the main 

 causes of error that are likely to arise in using the 

 thermo-electric type of Instrument, though, as he 

 remarks, troubles have been largely eliminated by the 

 use of Improved types of galvanorneter of the moving 

 coil pattern. Great care Is required In the gradua- 

 tion of the instruments, and frequent regraduation is 

 necessary. One of the great advantages of the 

 thermo-electric pyrometer is that It lends itself readily 



