268 



NATURE 



[April 28, 1910 



obtained from iron pyrites. The pyrites (sulphide of iron), 

 or " gold stones," as it was termed, was stacked in heaps 

 and allowed to weather. The drainings from the heap 

 were boiled, with some iron added, and evaporated, the 

 sulphate of iron crystallising out. There were important 

 and old-established works at Deptford, Rotherhithe, and 

 Whitstable. About 1754, works were established at Wigan. 



Sulphuric Acid. 



Sulphuric acid, known as " oil " or " spirit " of vitriol, 

 was obtained by two processes, both invented by the 

 alchemist Basil Valentine in the fifteenth century. In one 

 of these crystals of sulphate of iron (" copperas ") were 

 distilled in earthen retorts, the resulting oil of vitriol 

 being condensed in glass or earthenware receivers. The 

 process is still employed at Nordhausen, in Saxony, and 

 Nordhausen, or " fuming " acid, is still an article of com- 

 merce. It differs slightly in its chemical composition from 

 the ordinary modern acid. The second process is the 

 original form of the modern method. In it sulphur was 

 burned under a bell-jar over water, and the acid liquor 

 evaporated. Valentine also burnt a mixture of sulphur, 

 nitre, and antimony sulphide in the same way, and this 

 was an important improvement. About the middle of the 

 eighteenth century a French chemist found that the anti- 

 mony was not needed, and considerable amounts of the 

 acid were then made. 



Up to the middle of the eighteenth century all, or nearly 

 all, the oil of vitriol made in England was made by the 

 distillation of copperas, but in 1740 Ward introduced its 

 manufacture by the method of burning sulphur and salt- 

 petre. In 1749 he obtained a patent for the process. He 

 set up works for making the acid, first at Twickenham and 

 afterwards at Richmond. Dr. Roebuck improved on the 

 process by substituting lead chambers for the glass re- 

 ceivers, and by this important modification the evolution 

 of the modern method was practically completed. Roe- 

 buck and his partner, Garbett, first used their improved 

 system in 1746 at Manchester, and in 1749 they set up 

 work at Preston-Pans, near Edinburgh. This invention 

 revolutionised the industry, greatly lowered the cost of pro- 

 duction, and, among other applications, enabled the acid 

 to be used for bleaching instead of the sour milk previously 

 employed. 



The method used at the present day for the manufacture 

 of the vast quantities of sulphuric acid now required is 

 really only a development of Roebuck's. The principle is 

 the same, though it has been changed by chemical know- 

 ledge from an empirical manufacture to a highly scientific 

 process. Iron pyrites (sulphide of iron) has generally re- 

 placed the sulphur first used, details have been improved, 

 and the methods rendered more economical, but it remains 

 in its essential features almost identical with that of a 

 hundred and fifty years ago. 



think fit ; and that they report to the Senate before the 

 end of the Lent term, 191 1. 



At the Congregation to be held at 2 p.m. to-day, 

 April 28, it is proposed to confer the degree of Doctor of 

 Law, honoris causa, upon Colonel Theodore Roosevelt. 



UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL 

 INTELLIGENCE. 



Cambridge. — An exhibition of 50L a year, tenable for 

 two years, is offered by the governing body of Emmanuel 

 College to an advanced student commencing residence at 

 Cambridge as a member of Emmanuel College in October. 

 The exhibition will be awarded at the beginning of 

 October. Applications, accompanied by two certificates of 

 good character, should be sent to the Master of Emmanuel 

 not later than October i. 



The chairman of the special board for biology and 

 geology gives notice that applications to occupy the 

 University's table in the Zoological Station at Naples, or 

 that in the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association 

 at Plymouth, should be addressed to him (Prof. Langley) 

 on or before Thursday, May 26. 



It is proposed to appoint a syndicate to consider the 

 financial administration of the various scientific depart- 

 ments of the University and the financial relations between 

 these departments and the museums and lecture rooms 

 syndicate ; that the syndicate confer with the financial 

 board, the general board of studies, the museums and 

 lecture rooms syndicate, the heads of the various scientific 

 departments, and such other bodies or persons as they may 

 NO. 2 113, VOL. 83] 



Prof. Senier delivered a lecture on March 9 last before 

 the Royal Dublin Society on " The University and 

 Technical Training," which has now been published by 

 Mr. Edward Ponsonby, of 116 Grafton Street, Dublin. 

 The lecture formed the subject of a note in our issue of 

 March 24 last (vol. Ixxxiii., p. 118). 



Mr. Milton C. Whitaker, general superintendent of 

 the Welsbach Company's works, has been appointed 

 professor of industrial chemistry at Columbia University, 

 to the vacancy caused by the retirement of Prof. Charles 

 F. Chandler. Dr. Marston Taylor Bogert has been 

 appointed to succeed Dr. Chandler as head of the depart- 

 ment of chemistry. 



The annual conference of the Association of Teachers 

 in Technical Institutions will be held this year at 

 Birmingham on May 16-17. Among the subjects for dis- 

 cussion are technical universities, relation of evening con- 

 tinuation schools to technical institutions, registration, 

 superannuation of technical teachers, &c. An address will 

 be given by Mr. Cyril Jackson, chairman of the Education 

 Committee of the London County Council, on the 

 extension of day technical work, and a paper will be read 

 by Dr. T. Slater Price on the relation of technical institu- 

 tions to universities. 



The second International Conference on Elementary 

 Education is to be held at the Sorbonne, Paris, on 

 August 4-7. It is being organised by an International 

 Bureau, consisting of representatives of the various 

 associations of teachers throughout Europe. Among the 

 subjects to be discussed by the conference may be men- 

 tioned the aim and object of elementary science teaching 

 in primary schools ; compulsory attendance ; the pro- 

 fessional training of teachers, inspectors, and educational 

 administrators ; and educational continuation work. 

 Further information may be obtained from Mr. Ernest 

 Gray, 67 Russell Square, London, W.C. 



In connection with the appeal for 70,000/. for the pur- 

 chase of a site and the erection of new chemical labora- 

 tories thereon at University College, London, to which 

 we directed attention in the issue of Nature for 

 February 17 (vol. Ixxxii., p. 462), the Lord Mayor has 

 arranged a meeting of city men to be held at the Mansion 

 House on May 10, at 4 p.m. The chair will be taken 

 by the Lord Mayor, and the following gentlemen will 

 speak : — the Earl of Rosebery (Chancellor of the Uni- 

 versity), the Earl of Cromer, Lord Avebury, Sir Felix 

 Schuster (treasurer of University College), Dr. Miers 

 (principal of the University), Sir Henry Roscoe (chairman 

 of the appeal committee), and Sir William Ramsay, 

 K.C.B. 



The attention of the Chancellor of the Exchequer was 

 directed on April 22 in the House of Commons to the 

 grave difficulty experienced by local education authorities 

 in respect of the grant for secondary education based on 

 the reduced amount of the " whisky money " for the 

 present 3'ear. The amount received by local education 

 authorities for higher education under the Local Taxation^ 

 (Customs and Excise) Act has become greatly diminished,: 

 and many authorities have had to consider the question oC 

 reducing their work for next year, particularly in regard 

 to evening classes. As was pointed out in the House by 

 more than one speaker, it is highly unsatisfactory that 

 the grant for higher education should depend upon the 

 consumption of whisky in the country. The Chancellor 

 admitted that something ought to be done in the course 

 of this year to put the revenue of these local authorities 

 on a more dependable basis. He said the loss owing to 

 the decrease in the whisky revenue was 253,000/., and he 

 suggested, on behalf of the Government, that half the land 

 taxes — which, it is expected, will be, in respect of last 

 year, 490,000/. — shall be allocated for the purpose off 

 making good the deficiency ; and, secondly, that the I 



