Physiology of Animals. 61 



less content to interpret the liver as an organ for secret- 

 ing bile (now regarded as for the most part a waste- 

 product), Bernard detected a much more important 

 activity, namely, that the liver utilizes the sugar brought 

 by the blood from the food-canal to build up a reserve 

 product, glycogen or animal starch. 



Thereafter came many interesting advances, gropings, 

 and stumblings, but in 1889 a step was taken by 

 Minkowski so firm and definite that it gave stability 

 to a whole series of similar investigations. This step 

 concerned the pancreas, which is well known to be a 

 most important digestive gland, secreting a juice which 

 attacks all the three kinds of food carbohydrates, fats, 

 and proteids. Minkowski demonstrated that pheno- 

 mena of diabetes followed extirpation of the pancreas ; 

 and as one of the features of this disease is the appear- 

 ance of sugar in the urine there was here an opportunity 

 for precisely proving and exactly measuring at least 

 one of the results of tampering with the organ in ques- 

 tion. In short, Minkowski proved that the pancreas, 

 besides being a digestive gland, exerts an essential 

 influence on the blood which passes through it. 



Minkowski's discovery gave an impetus to the study 

 of other organs, notably the thyroid gland. Various 

 theories had been hazarded in regard to its function, 

 but probably the most general opinion was that it was 

 not of any great importance. Gradually, however, 

 observations accumulated showing that degeneration of 

 this organ was associated with goitre, Derbyshire neck, 

 and cretinism ; that its absence was the structural fact 

 implied by the disease of myxcedema; and that all these 

 diseased states could be ameliorated or temporarily 

 cured if the patient compensated for the degeneracy of 

 his own organ by eating that of sheep, &c. , or receiving 

 injections of the thyroid extract of his companion mam- 

 mals. 



We had smiled at the ancients for recommending the 

 coward to eat the lion's heart, and for many similar 

 prescriptions; yet here were the cautious nineteenth- 

 century physicians injecting thyroid extract in order 

 to cure myxcedema, or to stimulate the retarded de- 



